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SR-05-27-2014-8ACity Council Meeting: May 27, 2014 Agenda Item: $ A To: Mayor and City Council From: Robert Almada, Emergency Manager Subject: Approval of the Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan Recommended Action Staff recommends that the City Council approve the updated Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan. Executive Summary The Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan was originally approved by City Council on September 28th, 2004 This updated version reflects changes within the Sana Monica City organization and includes new mitigation actions which are intended to limit the loss of life and property in emergencies. This document is required by the Federal Emergency Management Agency's (FEMA) in order to receiving future Hazard Mitigation funding or other public assistance following a federally declared emergency. Background In 2004, FEMA required that all state and local governments must have an approved All Hazards Mitigation Plan in order to qualify for disaster mitigation and recovery funding. Once the All Hazards Mitigation Plan is approved by City Council, it will then be submitted to the State of California for approval. After the State of California approves the All Hazards Mitigation Plan it will then be submitted to FEMA for final approval. Discussion The All Hazards Mitigation Plan is required in order to apply for disaster mitigation and recovery funding prior to and following a federally declared disaster. The All Hazards Mitigation Plan includes several key components focused on Santa Monica and the 1 reduction of risk and impacts to lives, property, and the environment in the event of disasters. Some of these components include: ® A Community Profile ® Risk Assessment ® Mitigation Goals ® Mitigation Action Items ® Hazard Analysis The All Hazards Mitigation Plan was developed by the Office of Emergency Management and Integrated Solutions Consulting with funding from a State of California Hazard Mitigation Grant. A Planning Committee was formed to assist in the development of the Plan. Members included staff from Fire, Planning and Community Development, Finance, Public Works and Community and Cultural Services Departments. Additionally, significant community outreach was part of the process. This included an online survey to residents, businesses, and other key stakeholders to identify mitigation actions as well as a hazard analysis of Santa Monica. The Planning Committee met with key community stakeholders including the Santa Monica Chamber of Commerce, Downtown Santa Monica, Inc., The Convention and Visitors Bureau, UCLA Santa Monica Hospital, Providence St. John's Hospital, the Santa Monica - Malibu Unified School District, the Santa Monica College and others to address the hazard analysis and mitigation actions. Community involvement is a key component in the development of an All Hazards Mitigation Plan. Approval of the Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan allows the City of Santa Monica to be eligible for federal disaster assistance money prior to and following an emergency. The All Hazards Mitigation Plan is available online at vvww.smqov.net/allhazmitsplan. c Financial Impacts & Budget Actions There is no immediate financial impact or budget action necessary as a result of the recommended action. Council approval of the Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan will make the City of Santa Monica eligible for federal disaster assistance money prior to and following an emergency. Prepared by: Paul Weinberg, Emergency Services Coordinator Approved: �tobert Almada Emergency Services Manager, Office of Emergency Management Attachments: Forwarded to Council: Rod Gould City Manager 1) Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan 3 ��i,�� ¢� �� .r �� w II Hazard Mitigation I City of Santa Monica, CA 11IN111-114 1:1RIVAI IT,V Primary Point of Contact: Paul Weinberg Emergency Services Coordinator Santa Monica Office of Emergency Management 333 Olympic Drive, Santa Monica, CA 90401 310.458.8686 (Office) paul.weinberg@smgov.net 2 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Executive Summary Section 1 - Mitigation Action Plan 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Community Profile ........................... 1,3 Risk Assessment 1.4 Mitigation Goals 1.5 Mitigation Action Items - -_ 1.6 Plan Maintenance Section 2 - Hazards 2.1 Earthquake ....... ............................... 2.2 Landslide 2.3 Flood .............. .... . ° ° ............... -... 2.4 Tsunami 2.5 Wildfires 2.6 Severe Windstorm/Thunderstorm 2.7 Community Events 2.8 Exposition Light Rail ........................ Section 3- Resources Appendix A: Resource Directory ........... .................. ..... .. . . . . .. Appendix B: Public Participation Process ------------------------------------------- Appendix C: Economic Analysis of Natural Hazard Mitigation Projects Appendix D: List of Acronyms ............................................................ Appendix E: Glossary...__.. --- ............................ ............................... R 14 26 - .... -. 34 ............. 36 43 .............. E9 84 103 ..113 ..126 136 142 150 152 175 178 179 3 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 0 On October 30, 2000, the President signed into law the Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000, also known as DMA2K. Among its other features, DMA2K established a requirement that in order to remain eligible for Federal disaster assistance and grant funds, local and State governments must develop and adopt Hazard Mitigation Plans (HMPs). On February 26, 2002, the Federal Emergency Management Agency published an Interim Final Rule (IFR) that set forth the guidance and regulations under which such plans are supposed to be developed. The IFR provides detailed descriptions of both the planning process that States and localities are required to observe, and the contents of the plan that emerges. The original version of the City of Santa Monica Hazard Mitigation Plan was approved by the State and the Federal Emergency Management Agency in 2004, and was subsequently adopted. The IFR related to mitigation planning specifies that local jurisdictions must update their HMPs every five years. Hazard mitigation is often defined as actions taken to reduce the effects of natural hazards on a place and its population. The 2014 HMP update entailed a comprehensive re- evaluation of all parts of the plan, including hazard profiles, risk assessment, mitigation goals, strategies, and mitigation priorities. The 2014 Update observes 44 CFR Part 201.6 and the 2013 Local Mitigation Planning Handbook. The contact information for the City of Santa Monica official submitting this All Hazards Mitigation Plan Update is: Paul Weinberg Emergency Services Coordinator Santa Monica Office of Emergency Management 333 Olympic Drive, Santa Monica, CA 90401 310.458.8686 (Office) paul.weinberg@smgov.net The City of Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Action Plan includes resources and information to assist City residents, public and private sector organizations, and others interested in participating in planning for natural hazards. The mitigation plan provides a list of activities that may assist the City of Santa Monica in reducing risk and preventing loss from future hazard events. The action items address multi - hazard issues, as well as activities for earthquakes, landslides, flooding, tsunamis, wildfires and severe windstorms /thunderstorms. The 2014 update also includes considerations for Community Events and the Exposition Light Rail. The All Hazards Mitigation Plan contains a five -year action plan matrix, background on the purpose and methodology used to develop the mitigation plan, a profile of the City of Santa Monica, sections on six natural hazards that occur within the City, and the new Community Events and the Exposition Light Rail sections. A number of appendices are also included in the plan. All of the sections are described in detail in Section 1.1, the plan introduction. The City of Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation is organized to parallel the structure provided in the original Interim Final Rule [IFRj and observes requirements as indicated in 44 CFR Part 201.6 and the 2013 Local Mitigation Planning Handbook. Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Table of Contents Executive Summary Section 1 —All Hazards Mitigation Action Plan 1.1 Introduction 1.2 Community Profile 1.3 Risk Assessment 1.4 Mitigation Goals 1.5 Mitigation Action Items 1.6 Plan Maintenance Section 2 — Hazards 2.1 Earthquake 2.2 Landslide 2.3 Flood 2.4 Tsunami 2.5 Wildfires 2.6 Severe WindstormfThunderstorm 2.7 Community Events 2.8 Exposition Light Rail Section 3 — Resources Appendix A: Resource Directory Appendix B: Public Participation Process Appendix C: Economic Analysis of Natural Hazard Mitigation Projects Appendix D: List of Acronyms Appendix E: Glossary There are references to the IFR throughout the Plan Update. Where possible, these provide specific section and subsection notations to aid the review process. The Plan also includes references to the FEMA crosswalk document, which is used in reviewing all hazard mitigation plans. Planning Process The City of Santa Monica has been working on the original Local Hazard Mitigation Plan (LHMP) since the initial OES DMA2K training workshop in June of 2003. The City's Emergency Services Coordinator attended the three -day workshop. Upon returning, the LHMP was put on the agenda of the City -wide Department Heads meeting in July, and a LHMP working group and steering committee was established. The working group began addressing a strategy for the development of the Plan immediately. The Santa Monica City Council approved the creation of the LHMP in September of 2004. Work on the Plan continued over the next year in a number of committees throughout the City. These committees included: • Department Head Meetings • The Emergency Operations Center Team • The Public Information Team • The Disaster Recovery Organization • Several Department staff meetings from most City Departments • Local All Hazard Mitigation Planning Committee The original version of the City of Santa Monica Hazard Mitigation Plan was approved by the State and the Federal Emergency Management Agency in 2004, and was subsequently adopted. In 2012, a review and update of the Local Hazard Mitigation Plan was initiated. Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Who.Participatgd in Developing(Up "da #irig thj - loz. ..`., The City of Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Action Plan and its subsequent update is the result of a collaborative effort between the City of Santa Monica citizens, public agencies, non - profit organizations, the private sector, and regional and state organizations. Public participation played a key role in the development and update of goals and action items. Interviews were conducted with stakeholders across the City, and a public workshop and survey were conducted to include City of Santa Monica residents in the plan development process. A project Steering Committee guided the process of developing and updating the plan. The Steering Committee was comprised of representatives from: City of Santa Monica Office of Emergency Management City of Santa Monica Building and Safety City of Santa Monica Fire Department City of Santa Monica Finance City of Santa Monica Police Department City of Santa Monica Information Systems City of Santa Monica GIS City of Santa Monica Planning City of Santa Monica Disaster Recovery Organization City of Santa Monica Rent Control City of Santa Monica Human Services Administration City of Santa Monica Community and Cultural Services City of Santa Monica City Managers Office City of Santa Monica Airport City of Santa Monica City TV Santa Monica Red Cross The mission of the City of Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan is to promote sound public policy designed to protect citizens, critical facilities, infrastructure, private property, and the environment from natural hazards. This can be achieved by increasing public awareness, documenting the resources for risk reduction and loss- prevention, and identifying activities to guide the City toward building a safer, more sustainable community. The plan goals describe the overall direction that the City of Santa Monica agencies, organizations, and citizens can take to work toward mitigating risk from natural hazards. The goals are stepping- stones between the broad direction of the mission statement and the specific recommendations outlined in the action items. Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Goal #1: Increase Public Awareness of Local Hazards Description: Increase public awareness and understanding, support, and demand for hazard mitigation. Objectives: • Heighten public awareness of the full range of natural hazards they may face. • Educate the public on actions they can take to prevent or reduce the loss of life and /or property from all hazards. • Publicize and encourage the adoption of appropriate hazard mitigation measures. Goal #2: Protection of Lives and Property Description: Implement activities that assist in protecting lives by making homes, businesses, infrastructure, critical facilities, and other property more resistant to natural hazards. Objectives: • Advise public about health and safety precautions to protect from injury and loss. • Warning and communication technologies to mitigate damage from natural hazards. • Reduce damage to enhance protection of dangerous areas during hazardous events. • Protect critical facilities and services. • Ensure Emergency Services and critical facilities are included in mitigation strategies. Goal #3: Promote Resilient Communities Description: Promote development in a sustainable manner. Objectives: • Incorporate hazard mitigation into long -range planning and development activities. • Utilize regulatory approaches to prevent creation of future hazards to life and property. Goal 94: Partnerships to enhance preparedness, response, and recovery capabilities Description: Build and support local partnerships to continuously become less vulnerable to natural hazards. Objectives: • Build and support local partnerships with stakeholders in the community. • Build a cadre of committed volunteers to safeguard the community before, during, and after a disaster. • Build hazard mitigation concerns into City planning and budgeting process. 8 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 I I Goal #5: Strengthen Emergency Services Capability Description: Establish policies and procedures to ensure mitigation projects for critical facilities, services, and infrastructure. Objectives: • Provide training to City and non -City departments on mitigation programs and techniques that could be incorporated into a variety of projects. • Strengthen emergency operations by increasing collaboration and coordination among public agencies, non - profit organizations, business, and industry. The action items are a listing of activities in which City agencies and citizens can be engaged to reduce risk. Each action item includes an estimate of the timeline for implementation. Short -term action items are activities that City agencies may implement with existing resources and authorities within one to two years. Long -term action items may require new or additional resources or authorities, and may take between one and five years (or more) to implement. The action items are organized within the following matrix, which lists all of the multi- hazard and hazard - specific action items included in the All Hazards Mitigation Plan. Data collection and research and the public participation process resulted in the development of these action items (see Appendix B). The matrix includes the following information for each action item: Coordinating Organization. The coordinating organization is the public agency with regulatory responsibility to address natural hazards, or that is willing and able to organize resources, find appropriate funding, or oversee activity implementation, monitoring, and evaluation. Coordinating organizations may include local, county, or regional agencies that are capable of or responsible for implementing activities and programs. Timeline. Action items include both short and long -term activities. Each action item includes an estimate of the timeline for implementation. Short -term action items are activities which City agencies are capable of implementing with existing resources and authorities within one to two years. Long -term action items may require new or additional resources or authorities, and may take between one and five years (or more) to implement. Ideas for Implementation. Each action item includes ideas for implementation and potential resources, which may include grant programs or human resources. Plan Goals Addressed. The plan goals addressed by each action item are included as a way to monitor and evaluate how well the All Hazards Mitigation Plan is achieving its goals once implementation begins. The plan goals are organized into the following five areas: 1. Increase Public Awareness of Local Hazards 2. Protection of Lives and Property 3. Promote Resilient Communities 4. Partnerships and Implementation 5. Strengthen Emergency Services Capability Partner Organizations. The Partner organizations are not listed with the individual action items or in the plan matrix. Partner organizations are listed in Appendix A, of this plan and are agencies or public /private sector organizations that may be able to assist in the implementation of Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 action items by providing relevant resources to the coordinating organization. The partner organizations listed in the Resource Directory of the City of Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan are potential partners recommended by the project steering committee, but were not necessarily contacted during the development of the All Hazards Mitigation Plan. Partner organizations should be contacted by the coordinating organization to establish commitment of time and resources to action items. Constraints. Constraints may apply to some of the action items. These constraints may be a lack of city staff, lack of funds, or vested property rights which might expose the City to legal action as a result of adverse impacts on private property. OWN Planbe"Impjgmerifed,,Mo "nrfored, "and, The Plan Maintenance Section of this document details the formal process that will ensure that the City of Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan remains an active and relevant document. The plan maintenance process includes a schedule for monitoring and evaluating the Plan annually and producing a plan revision every five years. This section describes how the City will integrate public participation throughout the plan maintenance process. Finally, this section includes an explanation of how the City of Santa Monica government intends to incorporate the mitigation strategies outlined in this Plan into existing planning mechanisms such as the City's General Plan, Capital Improvement Plans, and Building & Safety Codes. A City of Santa Monica Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will be responsible for coordinating implementation of Plan action items and undertaking the formal review process. The existing Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee, which is comprised of the Hazard Mitigation Executive Committee, will be responsible for on -going plan implementation, monitoring and evaluation. Plan Adoption— Adoption of the All Hazard Mitigation Plan by the local jurisdiction's governing body is one of the prime requirements for approval of the plan. Once the plan is completed, the City Council will be responsible for adopting the City of Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan. The local agency governing body has the responsibility and authority to promote sound public policy regarding natural hazards. The City Council will periodically need to re -adopt the plan as it is revised to meet changes in the natural hazard risks and exposures in the community. The approved All Hazard Mitigation Plan will be significant in the future growth and development of the community. The City Council will adopt the City of Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan, and the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will take responsibility for plan implementation. The Disaster Recovery Group which was formed following the 1994 Northridge Earthquake transitioned into the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee. The chair will serve as a convener to facilitate the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee meetings, and will assign tasks such as updating and presenting the Plan to the members of the committee. Plan implementation and evaluation will be a shared responsibility among all of the Natural Hazard Advisory Committee Members. This will include the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee as the main steering committee for Plan maintenance. 1"plement6tion th %ugh Existing Progeaius The City of Santa Monica addresses statewide planning goals and legislative requirements through its General Plan, Capital Improvement Plans, and City Building & Safety Codes. The All Hazard Mitigation Plan provides a series of recommendations that are closely related to the goals and objectives of these 10 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 existing planning programs. The City of Santa Monica will have the opportunity to implement recommended mitigation action items through existing programs and procedures. The Federal Emergency Management Agency's approaches to identify costs and benefits associated with natural hazard mitigation strategies or projects fall into two general categories: benefit/cost analysis and cost - effectiveness analysis. Conducting benefit/cost analysis for a mitigation activity can assist communities in determining whether a project is worth undertaking now, in order to avoid disaster - related damages later. Cost - effectiveness analysis evaluates how best to spend a given amount of money to achieve a specific goal. Determining the economic feasibility of mitigating natural hazards can provide decision makers with an understanding of the potential benefits and costs of an activity, as well as a basis upon which to compare alternative projects. The City of Santa Monica All Hazards Mitigation Plan will be evaluated on an annual basis to determine the effectiveness of programs, and to reflect changes in land development or programs that may affect mitigation priorities. The evaluation process includes a firm schedule and timeline, and identifies the local agencies and organizations participating in plan evaluation. The convener will be responsible for contacting the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee members and organizing the annual meeting. Committee members will be responsible for monitoring and evaluating the progress of the mitigation strategies in the Plan. The City of Santa Monica is dedicated to involving the public directly in the continual review and updates of the All Hazard Mitigation Plan. Copies of the plan will be catalogued and made available at city hall and at all City operated public libraries. The plan also includes the address and the phone number of the Office of Emergency Management, responsible for keeping track of public comments on the Plan. 11 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 : :q a AljadOJd P : w e w w a a d « BUIAIJ a § d . uollujumoldwi z y x > > o w a a x s \ \ \ \ 0 0 Mi \\ \ \ \ \\ \ \ \\\ \ \\\ \ \\\ \ \/) E :- -6 rn # } ~!SN #§ » - : g ` /I ® - _ - \ \) /f } \[ 3 a / # & :G!( / \_ \r §\ \) - \ \\ \ \ \ \\\ \ \ \ \\ \ } \ \ \ \\ \ 4o :E & zi § 7 ) bo n 1 mm Mit'19-a-ationA Plan I 13 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Emergencies and disasters cause death or leave people injured or displaced, cause significant damage to our communities, businesses, public infrastructure and our environment, and cost tremendous amounts in terms of response and recovery dollars and economic loss. Hazard mitigation reduces or eliminates losses of life and property. After disasters, repairs and reconstruction are often completed in such a way as to simply restore to pre- disaster conditions. Such efforts expedite a return to normalcy; however, the replication of pre- disaster conditions results in a cycle of damage, reconstruction, and repeated damage. Hazard mitigation ensures that such cycles are broken and that post- disaster repairs and reconstruction result in a reduction in hazard vulnerability. While we cannot prevent disasters from happening, their effects can be reduced or eliminated through a well- organized public education and awareness effort, preparedness and mitigation. For those hazards which cannot be fully mitigated, the community must be prepared to provide efficient and effective response and recovery. Why Develop',a Mitigation Plan ?, As the costs of damage from natural disasters continue to increase, the community realizes the importance of identifying effective ways to reduce vulnerability to disasters. All hazard mitigation plans assist communities in reducing risk from natural hazards by identifying resources, information, and strategies for risk reduction, while helping to guide and coordinate mitigation activities throughout the City of Santa Monica. The plan provides a set of action items to reduce risk from natural hazards through education and outreach programs and to foster the development of partnerships, and implementation of preventative activities such as land use programs that restrict and control development in areas subject to damage from natural hazards. The resources and information within the Mitigation Plan: 1. Establish a basis for coordination and collaboration among agencies and the public in City of Santa Monica; 2. Identify and prioritize future mitigation projects; and 3. Assist in meeting the requirements of federal assistance programs. The mitigation plan works in conjunction with other City plans, including the 2010 City General Plan and 2013 Multi- Hazard Functional Emergency Plan. .... ®.• MY, a .. The City of Santa Monica's All Hazards Mitigation Plan affects entire city and provides a framework for planning for natural hazards. The resources and background information in the plan are applicable City- wide, and the goals and recommendations can lay groundwork for local mitigation plans and partnerships 14 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 The continuing challenge faced by local officials and state government is to keep the network of local plans effective in responding to the changing conditions and needs of California's diverse communities, particularly in light of the very active seismic region in which we live. This is particularly true in the case of planning for natural hazards where communities must balance development pressures with detailed information on the nature and extent of hazards. Planning for Natural Hazards, calls for local plans to include inventories, policies, and ordinances to guide development in hazard areas. These inventories should include the compendium of hazards facing the community, the built environment at risk, the personal property that may be damaged by hazard events, and most of all, the people who live in the shadow of these hazards. All mitigation is local, and the primary responsibility for development and implementation of risk reduction strategies and policies lies with local jurisdictions. Local jurisdictions, however, are not alone. Partners and resources exist at the regional, state and federal levels. Numerous California state agencies have a role in natural hazards and natural hazard mitigation. Some of the key agencies include: • The Governor's Office of Emergency Services (OES) is responsible for disaster mitigation, preparedness, response, recovery, and the administration of federal funds after a major disaster declaration; • The Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) gathers information about earthquakes, integrates this information on earthquake phenomena, and communicates this to end -users and the general public to increase earthquake awareness, reduce economic losses, and save lives. • The California Division of Forestry (CDF) is responsible for all aspects of wildland fire protection on private, state, and administers forest practices regulations, including landslide n1itigation, on non - federal lands. • The California Division of Mines and Geology (DMG) is responsible for geologic hazard characterization, public education, the development of partnerships aimed at reducing risk, and exceptions (based on science -based refinement of tsunami inundation zone delineation) to state mandated tsunami zone restrictions; and • The California Division of Water Resources (DWR) plans, designs, constructs, operates, and maintains the State Water Project; regulates dams; provides flood protection and assists in emergency management. It also educates the public, serves local water needs by providing technical assistance PIan.MetFiodology; :; Information in the Mitigation Plan is based on research from a variety of sources. Staff from the City of Santa Monica conducted data research and analysis, facilitated steering committee meetings and public workshops, and developed the final mitigation plan. The research methods and various contributions to the plan are included in the subsequent pages. 15 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Santa Monica Disaster Recovery Group Since the 1994 Northridge earthquake, the City Of Santa Monica has worked closely with FEMA and OES on several disaster recovery and hazard mitigation projects. Resulting from damages sustained in the Northridge earthquake, the City Of Santa Monica has received approximately $100 million dollars in disaster recovery and mitigation funds. These funds have been applied to several projects throughout the City. These projects included: • Extensive improvements to the City's sewer system • Retrofitting of several parking structures throughout Santa Monica • The Miles Playhouse restoration project The Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee continues to meet regularly, and will be the organization responsible for maintenance of the Local Hazard Mitigation Plan. Throughout the development of the LHMP, members of the executive planning committee attended staff meetings of several City Departments. The purpose of these meetings was to 1) discuss the development of the LHMP, 2) get input on potential mitigation actions, and 3) catalog past and on -going mitigation steps in Santa Monica. Below is a table of such mitigation actions. TABLE 1.1: PASTION -GOING MITIGATION ACTIONS PAj2TMN ttIFIC�AfiIONSTEPS,' r :., . City Attorney • Resolutions /Emergency Declarations prepared ahead of time • Deed restriction disclosure • Litigation • Subdivision regulation • Tax incentives • Transfer of development rights City Manager's Office/ Information • Media Strategy Working Group (PIT Crew) Systems Department/ Finance • Disaster Recovery Office • Smoke alarms • Risk and vulnerability mapping • Sprinklers • Insurance/ disaster insurance • Evacuation plans • Evacuation routes • Regular Evacuation Drills • Internal Emergency Rosters Community and Cultural Services • Emergency shelters Department/ Office of Emergency Management Clerk • Document Storage Planning /Public Works/ • Civil Engineering & Architecture Engineering& Architecture • Routine public works inspections • Palisades Bluffs Stabilization Effort • Buffer spaces around buildings • Erosion control landscaping 16 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 i I 17 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 • Fire resistant landscaping • Wildland management • Hazardous materials container tie downs • Utilities • Water Infrastructure Reliability study • Adequate firefighting water supply • Capital improvement planning • Debris catch basins • Retention basins • Storm drains • Underground utility lies • Proper signage for hazardous materials • Minimal storage of flammable liquids • Fire Extinguisher Checks • Route restrictions • Shelter in place education and training • Site community warning systems • Auxiliary power source • Emergency water and sewer ® Coastal zone management Finance Fire/ Office of Emergency • Community Emergency Response Team Management • Regular briefings to the Executive Team on Plan Refinement • Emergency plans for critical facilities • Emergency public information materials • Emergency food and water • Emergency communications • Emergency operations plans • Evacuation plans • Evacuation routes • Evacuation plans for special needs populations • Hazard analysis/ hazard information systems • Public education • Research • Hazardous materials training/ enhanced equipment • CPR/ First Aid classes • Sand sandbags those who live and work in Santa Monica, to mitigate potential flood damage. • Public private partnerships • Risk and vulnerability mapping • Staffing and training of Response Personnel Human Resources • Safety training for all employees • Regular contract with EAP program • Emergency contact forms Planning and Community • Comprehensive Seismic Survey Development • Flood proofing • Building codes • Building inspections • Increased insulation • Manufactured housing tie -downs 17 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 18 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 51912014 • Non - combustible building materials • Use of building sprinklers • Structural connectors • Better building design and engineering • Better facility design Drainage systems • Housing density • Minimal roof overhang • Proper egress • Increase use of safety glass • Adequate roads w/ vehicular access • Comprehensive planning and zoning ordinances ® Inspection of concrete, steel and wood -frame buildings and require seismic retrofitting for those deemed vulnerable during a major earthquake. Police • Evacuation Drills • Site Security Rent Control/ Housing and • Routine residential and housing inspections /citations /etc. Building • Seismic retrofit requirement • City Ordinances • Acquisition of property • Building maintenance 18 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 51912014 § ) ) /@) \ tf \ CL CL \/E 0MW- ,c» $Um- 0M (b co (2±// §!2#\ Cl) a, WN _)) }}§ )520,2 Er mmxxxxxx xx xxx x xxxx |F) ) ! �00xxx.xx >< >< x x ¥> ] a {ƒ x x xxx 0 °) x x x xxx xxx G! Mn k\ Q\ 0o )0000 000\ n ga ga § x x x (\ )I x X x X x A xxxx x xxx x \ f ) k E\ - *# ® ® ®� { j -2� / \\G)§2 §�- ®»@� ®ja Gglf«i �2:>�l� \% =|U)D.E §Ez =a &r7 7f®�, #)22/ 6J=a£3=a23A3243 2§3±53 M CD ca ® vE ) /ƒ3 ƒ a2 / § ) ) /@) \ tf \ CL CL \/E 0MW- ,c» $Um- 0M (b co (2±// §!2#\ Cl) a, WN _)) }}§ )520,2 lipuf`fr "o'mfhe,Steering Committee, "` The Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee convened about every 6 to 8 weeks (a total of 8 meetings) to guide the development /update of the Mitigation Plan. The committee played an integral role in developing the mission, goals, and action items for the mitigation plan. The committee consisted of representatives of public and private agencies and organizations in City of Santa Monica, including: City of Santa Monica Office of Emergency Management City of Santa Monica Building and Safety City of Santa Monica Fire Department City of Santa Monica Finance City of Santa Monica Police Department City of Santa Monica Information Systems City of Santa Monica GIS City of Santa Monica Planning City of Santa Monica Disaster Recovery Organization City of Santa Monica Rent Control City of Santa Monica Human Services Administration City of Santa Monica Community and Cultural Services City of Santa Monica City Manager's Office City of Santa Monica Airport City of Santa Monica City TV Santa Monica Red Cross City Of Santa Monica staff facilitated opportunities for public inclusion in the update of the plan, in order to gather input and ideas from Santa Monica residents and stakeholders. The community has been invited to participate to provide input on mitigation activities and priorities for increasing the level of disaster preparedness and resilience. Other opportunities for public involvement include: Staffed a booth at the Silicon Beach Gets Ready Event, an emergency preparedness event for businesses in Santa Monica. Distributed flyers and surveys about the Mitigation Plan to attendees. LHMP was discussed at monthly meetings of volunteer groups at a meeting of OEM volunteers Created and disseminated a survey about the LHMP throughout the City. The survey was posted on the City's website for public input. A hard copy of the survey was also available at the Libraries and other locations throughout Santa Monica. TABLE 1.3 - PUBLIC INCLUSION Title Comment Date Review of work plan and identification of goals, objectives, Kick off Mitigation Meeting and strategies 07/18/2013 Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Executive Committee Review of Plan by the Executive Planning Committee. 9/05/2013 Review of Goals and Objectives with Executive Meeting with Plan Committee Committee. 9/25/2013 20 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Silicon Gets Ready Emergency Preparedness Event for Businesses 10/14/2013 Meeting with executive committee and community Meeting with Plan Committee partners 10/15/2013 Great CA Shake Out EOC exercise. review of LHMP ooals, and survev 10/17/2013 Launch of Online Survey Community Survey for feedback to integrate into LHMP 11/06/2013 Meeting with community members regarding the LHMP Community Meeting process and feedback 11/20/2014 State anil Federal 6uideltnes'and Regiiirements for'Mingatton:P [ ans Following are the Federal requirements for approval of a Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan: • Open public involvement, with public meetings that introduce the process and project requirements. • The public must be afforded opportunities for involvement in: identifying and assessing risk, drafting a plan, and public involvement in approval stages of the plan. • Community cooperation, with opportunity for other local government agencies, the business community, educational institutions, and non - profits to participate in the process. • Incorporation of local documents, including the local General Plan, the Zoning Ordinance, the Building Codes, and other pertinent documents. The following components must be part of the planning process: • Complete documentation of the planning process • A detailed risk assessment on hazard exposures in the community • A comprehensive mitigation strategy, which describes the goals & objectives, including proposed strategies, programs & actions to avoid long -term vulnerabilities. • A plan maintenance process, which describes the method and schedule of monitoring, evaluating and updating the plan and integration of the All Hazard Mitigation Plan into other planning mechanisms. • Formal adoption by the City Council. • Plan Review by both State OES and FEMA These requirements are spelled out in greater detail in the following plan sections and supporting documentation. City of Santa Monica staff examined existing mitigation plans from around the country, current FEMA hazard mitigation planning standards (386 series) and the State of California Natural Hazards Mitigation Plan Guidance. Other reference materials consisted of county and city mitigation plans, including: • Clackamas County (Oregon) Natural Hazards Mitigation Plan • Six County (Utah) Association of Governments • Upper Arkansas Area Risk Assessment and Hazard Mitigation Plan 21 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 • Urbandale -Polk County, Iowa Plan • Hamilton County, Ohio Plan • Natural Hazard Planning Guidebook from Butler County, Ohio • City of Austin, Hazard Mitigation Plan Hazard specific research: City of Santa Monica staff collected data and compiled research on six hazards: earthquakes, landslides, flooding, tsunamis, wildfires and severe windstorms /thunderstorms. Research materials came from state agencies including OES, and CDF. The City of Santa Monica staff conducted research by referencing historical local newspapers, interviewing long -time residents, long time City of Santa Monica employees and locating City of Santa Monica information in historical documents. The City of Santa Monica staff identified current mitigation activities, resources and programs, and potential action items from research materials and stakeholder interviews. For the 2014 Update, Community Events and Exposition Light Rail were added to the Hazard Section (see Section 2). Existing hazards were updated to reflect the most current data and vulnerabilities pertinent to each hazard. For the initial version of the plan, the Local Hazard Mitigation Planning Committee hired a Graduate Student Intern from the UCLA School of Public Policy, to assist with the Plan. This Graduate Student worked closely with the Center For Disaster Studies at the Graduate School of Public Health at UCLA, in developing the Plan. Extensive research and interviews were conducted with the Center for Disaster Studies at UCLA in creating the Local Hazard Mitigation Plan. The City of Santa Monica has been publicizing the update of the Local Hazard Mitigation Plan since the summer of 2013. During the 2014 plan revision, a web based survey was developed and disseminated throughout town, requesting public participation. The survey provided a valuable resource in generating community input for the Plan. The survey will assist the City in addressing the natural hazard concerns of people who live and work in Santa Monica. The resources and information cited in the mitigation plan provide a strong local perspective and help identify strategies and activities to make City of Santa Monica more disaster resilient. Nowls,the PlarrUsed? Each section of the mitigation plan provides information and resources to assist people in understanding the City and the hazard - related issues facing citizens, businesses, and the environment. Combined, the sections of the plan work together to create a document that guides the mission to reduce risk and prevent loss from future natural hazard events. The structure of the plan enables people to use a section of interest to them. It also allows City government to review and update sections when new data becomes available. The ability to update individual sections of the mitigation plan places less of a financial burden on the City. Decision - makers can allocate funding and staff resources to selected pieces in need of review, thereby avoiding a full update, which can be costly and time - consuming. New data can be easily incorporated, resulting in an All Hazards Mitigation Plan that remains current and relevant to the City of Santa Monica. The mitigation plan is organized in three sections. Section 1 contains an executive summary, introduction, City profile, risk assessment, mitigation goals and action items, and plan maintenance. Section 2 contains the six natural hazards, Community Events, and Exposition Light Rail. Section 3 includes the appendices. Each section of the plan is described below. 22 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 i I Executive Summary: Five -Year Action Plan The Five -Year Action Plan provides an overview of the mitigation plan mission, goals, and action items. The plan action items are included in this section, and address multi- hazard issues, as well as activities that can be implemented to reduce risk and prevent loss from future natural hazard events. Section 1 - Mitigation Action Plan 1.1 Introduction The Introduction describes the background and purpose of developing the mitigation plan for City of Santa Monica. 1.2 Community Profile This section presents the history, geography, demographics, and socioeconomics of the City of Santa Monica. It serves as a tool to provide an historical perspective of natural hazards in the City. 1.3 Risk Assessment This section provides information on hazard identification, vulnerability and risk associated with natural hazards in the City of Santa Monica. 1.4 Mitigation Goals This section provides information on the process used to develop goals that cut across the hazards addressed in the mitigation plan. 1.5 Mitigation Action Items This section provides information on the action items that cut across the hazards addressed in the mitigation plan. 1.6 Plan Maintenance This section provides information on plan implementation, monitoring and evaluation. 23 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Section 2 - Hazard Specific Information Hazard - Specific Information on the hazards are addressed in this plan. Chronic hazards occur with some regularity and may be predicted through historic evidence and scientific methods. The chronic hazards addressed in the plan include: 2.1 Earthquake 2.2 Landslide 2.3 Flooding 2.4 Tsunami 2.5 Wildfires 2.6 Severe Windstorm/Thunderstorm 2.7 Large Scale Community Events 2.8 Exposition Light Rail Transit Catastrophic hazards do not occur with the frequency of chronic hazards, but can have devastating impacts on life, property, and the environment. In Southern California, because of the geology and terrain, earthquake, landslides, and flooding also have the potential to be catastrophic as well as chronic hazards. For the coastal areas of Southern California, tsunamis, while very rare, have the potential to calamitously devastate low -lying coastal areas. Each of the hazard - specific sections includes information on the history, hazard causes and characteristics, hazard assessment, goals and action items, and local, state, and national resources. 24 - Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Section 3 - Resources The plan appendices are designed to provide users of the City of Santa Monica's All Hazards Mitigation Plan with additional information to assist them in understanding the contents of the mitigation plan, and potential resources to assist them with implementation. Appendix A: Plan Resource Directory The resource directory includes City, regional, state, and national resources and programs that may be of technical and /or financial assistance to the City of Santa Monica during plan implementation. Appendix B: Public Participation Process This appendix includes specific information on the various public processes used during development of the plan. Appendix C: Benefit Cost Analysis This section describes FEMA's requirements for benefit cost analysis in natural hazards mitigation, as well as various approaches for conducting economic analysis of proposed mitigation activities. Appendix D: List of Acronyms This section provides a list of acronyms for City, regional, state, and federal agencies and organizations that may be referred to within the City of Santa Monica's All Hazards Mitigation Plan. Appendix E: Glossary This section provides a glossary of terms used throughout the plan. 25 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 n The section is to provide a broad perspective, brief history and describes the makeup and development of the community. Located along the Westside of Los Angeles County, the City of Santa Monica is comprised of 8.3 square miles and is boarded on three sides by the City of Los Angeles and the Pacific Ocean on the west. Santa Monica occupies a central position along the arching shoreline of Santa Monica Bay. The beach, which has grown through accretion, is several hundred feet wide —one of the widest stretches of beach in this part of southern California. Santa Monica sits atop a coastal plain that is defined on its northern boundary by Santa Monica Canyon. This deep arroyo attracted Native American settlements and then the area's first European settlement in the 1860s —a summer colony for residents of the new City of Los Angeles some twelve miles inland along the foot of the mountains. South of the canyon, the rugged terrain gives way to the gently south sloping upland of the City's north side. The land descends to a historic drainage channel that ran west to the sea along the general line of the present -day Santa Monica freeway. This drainage formed a distinctive draw that originally marked the edge of the Palisades and defined the City's southerly border. It is this collision of this south sloping upland with the southwesterly trending coastline that creates the City's most memorable topographic feature —the Palisades —a sheer cliff of fragile sandstone that rises about 100 feet above the coast that separates the northern portion of the City from the beach below. The topography of the City's south side is considerably more complex. The broad upland occupied by the Sunset Park neighborhood rolls off gradually to the east and descends to the west into a series of parallel ridges that roll gently down into Ocean Park beach. To the south, it drops toward the historical coastal wetland of Ballona Creek. The landscape at the center of the City reflects the historic patterns created by water as it flowed from inland areas to the bay. The climate in Santa Monica is temperate throughout the year. Average high temperatures vary between 650F/1 8C to 72 0F /22C from winter to summer. Summers are mild and dry, and winters are cool, with an annual average of 16 inches of precipitation. Population /Demographics According to the 2010 Census, Santa Monica's population is 89,736, or about 10,663.8 persons per square mile. Additional housing units added through June, 2002, have brought the population to around 85,686. Senior citizens (65 years and over) comprise 15% of the city's population, and is estimated that nearly 37.1 % of them are living with at least one disability. Although it is home to a significant number of older people, Santa Monica is a city whose age distribution shows a significant concentration in the 22 -44 age group, and has fewer youth under 19 years of age (15.7 %) than the county average. The median age of a Santa Monica resident is 40.4 years of age. According to the 1999 City of Santa Monica Homeless Population Survey, an estimated 742 individuals are homeless, with zero families observed on the street, which is a unique feature of the homeless population in Santa Monica. Santa Monica is unique in its household and housing cross- section. 38.2% of the households in Santa 26 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 Monica are families, and 61.8% are non - family households, the reverse of the State average of 68.6% families and 31.4% non - family households. There are an average of 2.79 persons per family, and 1.91 persons per household. The 50,912 housing units in the City as of 2010 are primarily (71.6 %) occupied by renters as opposed to homeowners, again the reverse of the State average of 30.9 % renters and 56% homeowners. The highest geographic concentration (28 %) of households that are families with children in 2000 was in the 90402 zip code area. The educational attainment levels of Santa Monica residents were, on average, significantly higher than for Los Angeles County and California in 2010. According to the 2010 Census, 69.9% of residents over the age of 25 reported having a college degree, (e.g. either an Associate's degree or higher). This figure is relatively high when compared to Los Angeles County with 36.3% and California with 38.2% of the 25 and over population having college degrees. The median household income in Santa Monica is $72,271 as of the 2010 Census. The number of households earning over $150,000 increased significantly again in 2010, reaching 21.6% of total households. 60% of Santa Monica's employed population is employed as management, professional, and related occupations. The most popular employment industries for Santa Monica residents were educational, health & social service (22.6 %), followed closely by professional, scientific & management industries (20.3 %). Information services provided employment for 12.2% of residents. Santa Monica is an economically successful city with about 16,000 businesses which collectively generate almost $8.4 billion in gross annual income. About $2.3 billion of these sales are in the retail sector. There are an estimated 71,000 jobs in Santa Monica, generating a combined payroll of around $3 billion. The Westside, including Santa Monica, also has a large resident workforce of skilled "knowledge workers ". Over 60% of the 47,059 employed Santa Monica residents work in managerial, professional, and related occupations. Whereas the smallest businesses remain larger in number, the most jobs are provided by the mid -sized companies in Santa Monica. Taxable sales for the City of Santa Monica reflect the general health of the business community, particularly the retail community, and are a substantial source of revenues for the City. Of the three top economic categories, New Car Sales contributed 18.4 %, Restaurants contributed 14.7 %, and Apparel 10.4% of the $23.2 million the City earned in from taxable retail in 2001. Tourism is a key component of the economy and lifestyle of this beachfront community. Over 3.8 million people visit the city each year from outside Los Angeles County for pleasure, vacation, or business. These visitors spend $788 million annually, and bring in hotel tax revenues of $20 million to the city. Approximately 11,500 jobs are supported by the tourist industry. Even with the recent slowdown in the tourism industry, the City's hotel occupancy rate in its 3,500 rooms remains good, at 73 %. The city is an international destination, as well as the destination for millions of day- trippers, particularly on weekends, as they throng to our clean beaches, and visit our Pier and special retail destinations such as the Third Street Promenade, Main Street, Montana Avenue, and Santa Monica Place. Oversight of construction and development activities as well as long -range planning for Santa Monica is provided by the City's Department of Planning and Community Development (PCD). The City's long - range planning, development and growth policies are set forth in the General Plan, which contains the following 7 elements: Land Use, Circulation, Open Space, Conservation, Housing, Safety, and Noise. For certain regions of the city, Specific Plans have been developed which specify development and growth 27 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 policies for each region. The Specific Plans and the Elements of the General Plan are described in more detail in Policies and Ordinances. Plans for all proposed construction and development projects in Santa Monica must be first submitted to the PCD's Building and Safety Division for review. Building and Safety plan checkers verify that proposed projects comply with the CA Building Code, the City Municipal Code, State Title 24 requirements, and the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA) requirements. SMFD reviews design and construction plans for all sprinkler and ingress/ egress requirements. Depending on the scope and nature of the project, the plans may be forwarded to the Planning and Zoning Division for further review prior to issuance of building permits. The PCD's Planning and Zoning Division is responsible for interpreting the Zoning Ordinance as well as processing development and subdivision applications, forwarding plans to the appropriate commissions or boards for review, assuring project compliance with the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA), conducting design review of proposed buildings and provide staffing assistance to the Planning Commission, the Architectural Review Board, the Landmarks Commission and the Zoning Administrator. In addition, there is a Building and Fire and Life Safety Commission in Santa Monica that is consulted on life safety issues. These commissions and boards make determinations on a variety of planning and development issues and are briefly described below: Planning Commission - A seven member panel appointed by City Council to four year terms. The Commission meets twice monthly to review requests for development permits, conditional use permits, appeals to Zoning Administrator decisions, and planning policy matters. The Commission conducts public hearings on most of its agenda items. Within each zoning district there is a specific square footage threshold for development review. The Planning Commission reviews projects exceeding these thresholds as well as projects that require conditional use permits. Planning Commission decisions can be appealed to the City Council. Architectural Review Board - A seven member panel appointed by City Council to four year terms. The ARB is required to include at least two registered professional architects as well as persons with expertise in conservation, recreation, design, landscaping, the arts, urban planning, cultural - historical preservation, and ecological and environmental sciences. The board meets twice monthly to review the exterior design of all buildings (except single family residences), signs and landscaping. The board was formed to ensure that new development upholds the appearance of the community and reviews proposed projects to ensure that they are compatible with the neighborhood and in compliance with landscaping and sign requirements. ARB decisions can be appealed to the City Council. Building & Fire -Life Safety Commission - A seven member panel appointed by City Council to four year terms unless removed for cause. The Commission's membership is composed of at least one State of California licensed or registered architect, civil engineer or structural engineer; one State of California licensed building contractor; one State of California Certified Access Specialist; and one State of California Registered Fire Protection Engineer. The Commission hears appeals to decisions of the Building Official and the Fire Marshall. The Commission also makes recommendations to the City Council on adoption of the State Building and Fire Codes and locally adopted municipal amendments. The Building and Fire -Life Safety Commission meets at the request of two members, on the call of the Chair, or when an appeal is filed by an applicant. Landmarks Commission - A seven member panel appointed by City Council. Commission members include a registered architect, a local historian, an architectural historian, and a California - licensed real estate agent. The commission meets monthly and is charged with the task of designating buildings in the city as historic landmarks, designating historic districts and updating the city's historic resources inventory. Landmarks Commission decisions can be appealed to the City Council. 28 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Zoning Administrator - The Zoning Administrator is a PCD staff member and has the authority to rule on various zoning matters such as administrative approvals, temporary use permits, performance standards permits, variances, use permits, and reduced parking permits. Discretionary Zoning Administrator decisions can be appealed to the Planning Commission. Municipal construction and development projects are overseen by the Engineering Division of the Department of Environmental and Public Works Management. All municipal projects are subject to the same plan check process and requirements as private development. The City of Santa Monica recognizes that we live in a period of great environmental crisis. As a community, we need to create the basis for a more sustainable way of life both locally and globally through the safeguarding and enhancing of our resources and by preventing harm to the natural environment and human health. We are resolved that our impact on the natural environment must not jeopardize the prospects of future generations. In 1994, the City Of Santa Monica adopted the Sustainable City Program and in 2003, the Sustainable City Plan was fully adopted. Elements of the Sustainable City Program include: • Community and Economic Development • Construction and Development • Education • Energy • Hazardous Materials • Housing • Purchasing • Solid Waste • Stormwater & Wastewater • Transportation • Water Community Goals (adopted February 11, 2003): • Resource Management • Environmental & Public Health • Transportation • Economic Development • Open Space & Land Use • Housing • Community Education & Civic Participation 29 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 0 Conducting a risk assessment can provide information: on the location of hazards, the value of existing land and property in hazard locations, and an analysis of risk to life, property, and the environment that may result from natural hazard events. Specifically, the three levels of a risk assessment are as follows 1) Hazard Identification This is the description of the geographic extent, potential intensity and the probability of occurrence of a given hazard. Maps are frequently used to display hazard identification data. The City of Santa Monica identified six major hazards that affect this geographic area. These hazards - earthquakes, landslides, flooding, tsunamis, wildfires and severe windstorms /thunderstorms -were identified through an extensive process that utilized input from the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee. The geographic extent of each of the identified hazards has been identified by the City of Santa Monica GIS department using the best available data. During the 2014 update, two additional sections were added: Large -scale Community Events and the Exposition Light Rail. 2) Profiling Hazard Events This process describes the causes and characteristics of each hazard, how it has affected City of Santa Monica in the past, and what part of the City of Santa Monica's population, infrastructure, and environment has historically been vulnerable to each specific hazard. A profile of each hazard discussed in this plan is provided in each hazard section. For a full description of the history of hazard specific events, please see the appropriate hazard chapter. 3) Vulnerability Assessmentlinventorying Assets This is a combination of hazard identification with an inventory of the existing (or planned) property development(s) and population(s) exposed to a hazard. Critical facilities are of particular concern because these entities provide essential products and services to the general public that are necessary to preserve the welfare and quality of life in the City and fulfill important public safety, emergency response, and /or disaster recovery functions. The critical facilities have been identified and are listed in Table 1.5 at the end of this section. A description of the critical facilities in the City is also provided in this section. In addition, this plan includes a community issues summary in each hazard section to identify the most vulnerable and problematic areas in the City, including critical facilities, and other public and private property. 4) Risk Analysis Estimating potential losses involves assessing the damage, injuries, and financial costs likely to be sustained in a geographic area over a given period of time. This level of analysis involves using mathematical models. The two measurable components of risk analysis are magnitude of the harm that may result and the likelihood of the harm occurring. Describing vulnerability in terms of dollar losses provides the community and the state with a common framework in which to measure the effects of hazards on assets. For each hazard where data was available, quantitative estimates for potential losses are included in the hazard assessment. 5) Assessing Vulnerability/ Analyzing Development Trends This step provides a general description of land uses and development trends within the community so that mitigation options can be considered in land use planning and future land use decisions. This plan provides comprehensive description of the character of the City of Santa Monica in the Community 30 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 i i Profile. This description includes the geography and environment, population and demographics, land use and development, housing and community development, employment and industry, and transportation and commuting patterns. Analyzing these components of the City of Santa Monica can help in identifying potential problem areas, and can serve as a guide for incorporating the goals and ideas contained in this mitigation plan into other community development plans. Hazard assessments are subject to the availability of hazard - specific data. Gathering data for a hazard assessment requires a commitment of resources on the part of participating organizations and agencies. Each hazard - specific section of the plan includes a section on hazard identification using data and information from City, County or State agency sources. Regardless of the data available for hazard assessments, there are numerous strategies the City can take to reduce risk. These strategies are described in the action items detailed in each hazard section of this Plan. Mitigation strategies can further reduce disruption to critical services, reduce the risk to human life, and alleviate damage to personal and public property and infrastructure. Action items throughout the hazard sections provide recommendations to collect further data to map hazard locations and conduct hazard assessments. Recent federal regulations for hazard mitigation plans outlined in 44 CFR Part 201 include a requirement for risk assessment. This risk assessment requirement is intended to provide information that will help communities to identify and prioritize mitigation activities that will reduce losses from the identified hazards. There are 8 hazards profiled in the mitigation plan, including earthquakes, landslides, flooding, tsunamis, wildfires, severe windstorms /thunderstorms, large -scale community events, and the Exposition Light Rail. The Federal criteria for risk assessment and information on how the City of Santa Monica's All Hazard Mitigation Plan meets those criteria is outlined below. TABLE 1.4 FEDERAL CRITERIA FOR RISK ASSESSMENT Plan Requirement How is this addressed? Identifying Hazards Each hazard section includes an inventory of the best available data sources that identify hazard areas. To the extent GIS data are available, the City developed maps identifying the location of the hazard in the City. The Executive Summary and the Risk Assessment sections of the plan include a list of the hazard maps. Profiling Hazard Events Each hazard section includes documentation of the history, and causes and characteristics of the hazard in the City. Assessing Vulnerability: Where data is available, the vulnerability assessment for each Identifying Assets hazard addressed in the mitigation plan includes an inventory of all publicly owned land within hazardous areas. Each hazard section provides information on vulnerable areas in the City in the Community Issues section. Each hazard section also identifies potential mitigation strategies. Assessing Vulnerability: The Risk Assessment Section of this mitigation plan identifies key Estimating Potential Losses: critical facilities and lifelines in the City and includes a map of these facilities. Vulnerability assessments have been completed for the hazards addressed in the plan, and quantitative estimates were made for each hazard where data was available. Assessing Vulnerability: The City of Santa Monica Profile Section of this plan provides a Analyzing Development Trends description of the development trends in the City, including the geography and environment, population and demographics, land use and development, housing and community development, 31 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 employment and industry, and transportation and, commuting patterns. ��ticaLEacil (tlesand,;I�frestiuctyre,;-: `` " Facilities critical to government response and recovery activities (i.e., life safety and property and environmental protection) include: 911 centers, emergency operations centers, police and fire stations, public works facilities, communications centers, sewer and water facilities, hospitals, bridges and roads, shelters, and shelters. Facilities that, if damaged, could cause serious secondary impacts may also be considered "critical." A hazardous material facility is one example of this type of critical facility. Critical and essential facilities are those facilities that are vital to the continued delivery of key government services or that may significantly impact the public's ability to recover from the emergency. These facilities may include: buildings such as the jail, law enforcement center, public services building, community corrections center, the courthouse, and juvenile services building and other public facilities such as schools. Table 1.5 lists the critical facilities. 32 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Water Administration & Billing lWater and Sewer Woodlawn Cemetery Other Clover Park Other Christine Emerson Reed Park Other Joslyn Park Other Marine Park Other Memorial Park 110ther Palisades Park Other Tongva Park Other Virginia Avenue Park Other Santa Monica Unified School Dist* lChId Care Facilities Carlthorp School Child Care Facilities Edison Elementary School Child Care Facilities Franklin Elementary School Child Care Facilities Grant Elementary School Child Care Facilities McKinley Elementary School Child Care Facilities John Muir Elementary School Child Care Facilities Will Rogers Elementary School Child Care Facilities Roosevelt Elementary School Child Care Facilities John Adams Middle School" Ichim Care Facilities Lincoln Middle School IlChild Care Facilities Concord High School Child Care Facilities New Roads School Child Care Facilities Olympic High School Child Care Facilities Pacifica Christian High School Child Care Facilities St. Anne Catholic School IChild Care Facilities Saint Monica Catholic High School =lChild Care Facilities Santa Monica High School* IChild Care Facilities Santa Monica Alternative School Child Care Facilities Saint Monica Catholic Elementary School Child Care Facilities Santa Monica Montessori School (Child Care Facilities Crossroads School Child Care Facilities Santa Monica College* Child Care Facilities Southern California Edison Company* Energy Related Santa Monica Red Cross* 110ther Denotes Critical Facility Hazard mitigation strategies can reduce the impacts concentrated at large employment and industrial centers, public infrastructure, and critical facilities. Hazard mitigation for industries and employers may include developing relationships with emergency management services and their employees before disaster strikes, and establishing mitigation strategies together. Collaboration among the public and private sector to create mitigation plans and actions can reduce the impacts of natural hazards. 33 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 7 The following section provides an overview of the Mitigation Goals and Objectives: Goal #1: Increase Public Awareness of Local Hazards Description: Increase public awareness and understanding, support, and demand for hazard mitigation. Objectives: • Heighten public awareness of the full range of natural hazards they may face. • Educate the public on actions they can take to prevent or reduce the loss of life and /or property from all hazards. • Publicize and encourage the adoption of appropriate hazard mitigation measures. Goal #2: Protection of Lives and Property Description: Implement activities that assist in protecting lives by making homes, businesses, infrastructure, critical facilities, and other property more resistant to natural hazards. Objectives: • Inventory of buildings that may require seismic retrofitting • Advise public about health and safety precautions to protect from injury and loss. • Warning and communication technologies to mitigate damage from natural hazards. • Reduce damage to enhance protection of dangerous areas during hazardous events. • Protect critical facilities and services. • Ensure Emergency Services and critical facilities are included in mitigation strategies. 34 - Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Goal #3: Promote Resilient Communities Description: Promote development in a resilient and sustainable manner. Objectives: • Incorporate hazard mitigation into long -range planning and development activities. • Promote beneficial use of hazardous areas while expanding open space and recreational opportunities. • Utilize regulatory approaches to prevent creation of future hazards to life and property. Goal #4: Partnerships and Implementation Description: Build and support local partnerships to continuously become less vulnerable to natural hazards. Objectives: • Build and support local partnerships with stakeholders in the community. • Build a cadre of committed volunteers to safeguard the community before, during, and after a disaster. • Build hazard mitigation concerns into City planning and budgeting process. Goal #5: Strengthen Emergency Services Capability Description: Establish policies and procedures to ensure mitigation projects for critical facilities, services, and infrastructure. Objectives: • Provide training to City and non -City departments on mitigation programs and techniques that could be incorporated into a variety of projects. • Strengthen emergency operations by increasing collaboration and coordination among public agencies, non - profit organizations, business, and industry. 35 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 part This section serves to identify proposed projects in the community. Description: Identify and pursue potential projects and funding sources to develop and implement local and county mitigation activities. • Allocate resources to assist in mitigation projects when possible • Partner with other organizations and agencies to identify grant programs and foundations that support mitigation activities • Identify funds to improve the seismic performance of the sewer system at the 4t° Street overpass • Identify funds for City Yards improvement projects • Identify funds for bluff mitigation projects Priority: Responsible Organization: Status: Timeline: Cost: Potential Funding Sources: Plan Goals Addressed: High Planning, Finance, Fire Departments, Office of Emergency Management On -going Long -Term TBA Grants Protection of Lives and Property Partnerships for Implementation Emergency Services Capability 2: jntegrate.LHMP into,Existing Pr o "r ams'Ordinances; Building Codes Description: Integrate the goals and action items from the Local Hazard Mitigation Plan into existing regulatory documents and programs, including local ordinances and building codes, where appropriate. Inspect concrete, steel and wood -frame buildings and require seismic retrofitting for those deemed vulnerable during a major earthquake. Seismic Retrofit Program 36 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Priority: Responsible Organization: Status: Timeline: Cost: Potential Funding Sources: High Planning, Building, Office of Emergency Management Ongoing Long -Term TBA General Funds, Grants Plan Goals Addressed: Protection of Lives and Property Promote Sustainable Living Partnerships for Implementation a e Description: Design and implement a protection program for the critical information systems infrastructure, including telephones, computers, radio, 911 services, information systems, and backup systems. • Continue to improve capabilities by combining the Public safety dispatch services • Enhance GIS response capability in emergencies, including building data inventory, damage assessment and evacuation planning Priority: High Responsible Organization: ISD, Office of Emergency Management Status: Ongoing Timeline: Long -Term Cost: TBA Potential Funding Sources: General Funds, Grants Plan Goals Addressed: Emergency Services Capability Protection of Lives and Property 4.1ncrease Public Awareness of Hazards.and Disaster Preparedness Description: Design and implement a comprehensive campaign of public awareness of local natural hazards and disaster preparedness techniques, using media, print, radio, Internet, lecture and hands -on training. • Design and develop public education campaign for emergency preparedness and hazard mitigation for businesses as well as those who live and work in Santa Monica • Continue public education in schools and the community • Increase the number of Community Emergency Response Team (CERT) classes for businesses as well as those who live and work in Santa Monica • Expand Automated External Defribulator program • All inclusive Access and Functional Needs Resources 37 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 Priority: Responsible Organization: Status: Timeline: Cost: Potential Funding Sources: Plan Goals Addressed: High Fire Department, Office of Emergency Management On -going Long -Term TBA General Funds, Grants Increase Public Awareness . Emergency Services Capability Protection of Lives and Property 5.�Strengthen Evacuatlon;P,lans.for ejty- Faal/tros Description: Continue to strengthen and develop evacuation plans, policies and procedures for City facilities located throughout Santa Monica. • Modify evacuation plans to incorporate City Public Safety agencies • Train employees and practice City facility evacuation plans with participation by City Public Safety agencies such as Police and Fire • All inclusive Access and Functional Needs Resources Priority: Responsible Organization: Status: Timeline: Cost: Potential Funding Sources: Open Risk Management, Fire Department, Office of Emergency Management On -going On -going TBA General Funds, Grants Plan Goals Addressed: Protection of Lives and Property Description: Enhance feasibility of a public alert and notification system for disasters. • Enhance notification procedures of key city staff to respond to emergencies • Continue to study technological advances in capabilities and advances in public alert warning systems • All inclusive Access and Functional Needs Resources Priority: Responsible Organization: Status: Timeline: Cost: Potential Funding Sources: Plan Goals Addressed: Open Police, Fire Departments, Office of Emergency Management New Action Long -term TBA General Funds, Grants Protection of Lives and Property Emergency Services Capability 38 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 :, 0 N N C N a C O m d) a N (6 S Q (6 U C O C t6 N m M 0 N W C l6 a c 0 _rn a `m N t6 S Q (6 U C O (0 C N V 0 N N C m a C O ra m V N m 2 Q m U c 0 m c m N N V The plan maintenance section of this document details the formal process that will ensure that the City of Santa Monica's All Hazards Mitigation Plan remains an active and relevant document. The plan maintenance process includes a schedule for monitoring and evaluating the Plan annually and producing a plan revision every five years. This section describes how the City will integrate public participation throughout the plan maintenance process. Finally, this section includes an explanation of how the City of Santa Monica's government intends to incorporate the mitigation strategies outlined in this Plan into existing planning mechanisms such as the City General Plan, Capital Improvement Plans, and Building and Safety Codes. JNI I:ORIN(3 QNF, Plan Adoption The City Council will be responsible for adopting the City of Santa Monica's All Hazards Mitigation Plan. This governing body has the authority to promote sound public policy regarding natural hazards. Once the plan has been adopted, the City's Emergency Services Coordinator will be responsible for submitting it to the State Hazard Mitigation Officer (SHMO) to the Governor's Office of Emergency Services. The Governor's Office of Emergency Services will then submit the plan to the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) for review. This review will address the federal criteria outlined in 44 CFR Part 201.6. Upon acceptance by FEMA, the City of Santa Monica will gain eligibility for Hazard Mitigation Grant Program funds. Coordinating Body A City of Santa Monica's Hazard Mitigation Committee will be responsible for coordinating implementation of plan action items and undertaking the formal review process. The City Council will assign representatives from city agencies, including, but not limited to, the current Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee members. The city has formed a Hazard Mitigation Committee that consists of members from local agencies, organizations, and citizens, and includes the following: City of Santa Monica Building and Safety City of Santa Monica Fire Department City of Santa Monica Finance City of Santa Monica Police Department City of Santa Monica Public Works City of Santa Monica Office of Emergency Management City of Santa Monica Information Systems City of Santa Monica GIS City of Santa Monica Planning City of Santa Monica Disaster Recovery Organization City of Santa Monica Rent Control City of Santa Monica Human Services Administration City of Santa Monica Community and Cultural Services City of Santa Monica City Manager's Office City of Santa Monica Airport City of Santa Monica City TV Santa Monica Red Cross In order to make this committee as broad and useful as possible, the City Administrator will engage other relevant organizations and agencies in hazard mitigation. The recommendations for adding to the Hazard 43 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Mitigation Advisory Committee include An elected official A representative from the Chamber of Commerce An insurance company representative Community Planning Organization representatives A representative from the City Manager's office Representation from professional organizations such as the Home Builders Association A representative from the South Bay Council of Governments The Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will meet no less than bi- annually. Meeting dates will be scheduled, as appropriate, based on the best available date and time for the committee. These meetings will provide an opportunity to discuss the progress of the action items and maintain the partnerships that are essential for the sustainability of the mitigation plan. Convener The City Council will adopt the City of Santa Monica's All Hazard Mitigation Plan, and the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will take responsibility for plan implementation. The City Manager will serve as a convener to facilitate the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee meetings, and will assign tasks such as updating and presenting the Plan to the members of the committee. Plan implementation and evaluation will be a shared responsibility among all of the Natural Hazard Advisory Committee Members. Implementation through Existing Programs City of Santa Monica addresses statewide planning goals and legislative requirements through its General Plan, Capital Improvement Plans, and City Building and Safety Codes. The All Hazard Mitigation Plan provides a series of recommendations - many of which are closely related to the goals and objectives of existing planning programs. The City of Santa Monica will have the opportunity to implement recommended mitigation action items through existing programs and procedures. The City of Santa Monica's Building & Safety Department is responsible for administering the Building & Safety Codes. In addition, the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will work with other agencies at the state level to review, develop and ensure Building & Safety Codes that are adequate to mitigate or present damage by natural hazards. This is to ensure that life- safety criteria are met for new construction. The goals and action items in the mitigation plan may be achieved through activities recommended in the city's Capital Improvement Plans (CIP). Various city departments develop CIP plans, and review them on an annual basis. Upon annual review of the CIPs, the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will work with the city departments to identify areas that the hazard mitigation plan action items are consistent with CIP planning goals and integrate them where appropriate. Within six months of formal adoption of the mitigation plan, the recommendations listed above will be incorporated into the process of existing planning mechanisms at the city level. The meetings of the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will provide an opportunity for committee members to report back on the progress made on the integration of mitigation planning elements into city planning documents and procedures. Economic Analysis of Mitigation Projects FEMA's approaches to identify the costs and benefits associated with natural hazard mitigation strategies, measures, or projects fall into two general categories: benefit/cost analysis and cost - effectiveness analysis. 44 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Conducting benefit/cost analysis for a mitigation activity can assist communities in determining whether a project is worth undertaking now, in order to avoid disaster - related damages later. Cost - effectiveness analysis evaluates how best to spend a given amount of money to achieve a specific goal. Determining the economic feasibility of mitigating natural hazards can provide decision - makers with an understanding of the potential benefits and costs of an activity, as well as a basis upon which to compare alternative projects. Given federal funding, the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will use a FEMA- approved benefit/cost analysis approach to identify and prioritize mitigation action items. For other projects and funding sources, the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will use other approaches to understand the costs and benefits of each action item and develop a prioritized list. For more information regarding economic analysis of mitigation action items, please see Appendix C of the Plan. EVALUATING AND UPDATING <THErPLAN Formal Review Process The City of Santa Monica's All Hazards Mitigation Plan will be evaluated on an annual basis to determine the effectiveness of programs, and to reflect changes in land development or programs that may affect mitigation priorities. The evaluation process includes a firm schedule and timeline, and identifies the local agencies and organizations participating in plan evaluation. The convener or designee will be responsible for contacting the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee members and organizing the annual meeting. Committee members will be responsible for monitoring and evaluating the progress of the mitigation strategies in the Plan. The committee will review the goals and action items to determine their relevance to changing situations in the city, as well as changes in State or Federal policy, and to ensure they are addressing current and expected conditions. The committee will also review the risk assessment portion of the Plan to determine if this information should be updated or modified, given any new available data. The coordinating organizations responsible for the various action items will report on the status of their projects, the success of various implementation processes, difficulties encountered, success of coordination efforts, and which strategies should be revised. The convener will assign the duty of updating the plan to one or more of the committee members. The designated committee members will have three months to make appropriate changes to the Plan before submitting it to the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee members, and presenting it to the City Council (or other authority). The Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee will also notify all holders of the city plan when changes have been made. Every five years the updated plan will be submitted to the State Hazard Mitigation Officer and the Federal Emergency Management Agency for review. Continued Public Involvement The City of Santa Monica is dedicated to involving the public directly in review and updates of the Hazard Mitigation Plan. The Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee members are responsible for the annual review and update of the plan. The public will also have the opportunity to provide feedback about the Plan. Copies of the Plan will be catalogued and kept at all of the appropriate agencies in the City. The plan also includes the address and the phone number of the City's Emergency Services Coordinator, responsible for keeping track of public comments on the Plan. A public meeting will also be held after each annual evaluation or when deemed necessary by the Hazard Mitigation Advisory Committee. The meetings will provide the public a forum for which they can express 45 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 eA 47 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Section 2 - Specific Hazards 2.1 Earthquake, ------------- -------...... -°........................................... . - -- ---- --- --- ------- ....._....49 2.2 Landslide 73 2.3 Flood ......... ..... - 84 2.4 Tsunami 103 2.5 Wildfires 113 2.6 Severe Windstorm/Thunderstorm 126 2.7 Community Special Events --------------------- ___ ... _...... _............................... --------------- 136 2.8 Exposition Light Rail .... ......... ... ..... ........................................ ____ ------------- ._. ....... ...142 48 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 TABLE OF CONTENTS Why Are Earthquakes a Threat to the City of Santa Monica .............................. ............................... 50 History of Earthquake Events in Southern California ............................................ .............................52 .............................59 Causes and Characteristics of Earthquakes in Southern California ................... ............................... 53 Earthquake Related Hazards ................................................................................ .............................55 ............................... 65 HazardIdentification ........................................................................................... ............................... 57 Vulnerability Assessment .................................................................................... ............................... 59 RiskAnalysis ......................................................................................................... .............................59 Community Earthquake Issues ............................................................................. .............................60 Existing Mitigation Activities ................................................................................ ............................... 65 Earthquake Resource Directory ............................................................................ .............................68 49 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 The size of a landslide usually depends on the geology and the initial cause of the landslide. Landslides vary greatly in their volume of rock and soil, the length, width, and depth of the area affected, frequency of occurrence, and speed of movement. Some characteristics that determine the type of landslide are slope of the hillside, moisture content, and the nature of the underlying materials. Landslides are given different names, depending on the type of failure and their composition and characteristics. . Slides move in contact with the underlying surface. These movements include rotational slides where sliding material moves along a curved surface, and translational slides where movement occurs along a flat surface. These slides are generally slow moving and can be deep. Slumps are small rotational slides that are generally shallow. Slow- moving landslides can occur on relatively gentle slopes and can cause significant property damage, but are far less likely to result in serious injuries than rapidly moving landslides. 3 "Failure of a slope occurs when the force that is pulling the slope, downward (gravity) exceeds the strength of the earth materials that compose the slope. They can move slowly, (millimeters per year) or can move quickly and disastrously, as is the case with debris - flows. Debris -flows can travel down a hillside of speeds up to 200 miles per hour (more commonly, 30 — 50 miles per hour), depending on the slope angle, water content, and type of earth and debris in the flow. These flows are initiated by heavy, usually sustained, periods of rainfall, but sometimes can happen as a result of short bursts of concentrated rainfall in susceptible areas. Burned areas charred by wildfires are particularly susceptible to debris flows, given certain soil characteristics and slope conditions." 34 What is a Debris Flow? A debris or mud flow is a river of rock, earth and other materials, including vegetation that is saturated with water. This high percentage of water gives the debris flow a very rapid rate of movement down a se slope. Debris flows often with speeds greater than 20 mile per hour, and can often move much faster. This high rate of speed makes debris flows extremely dangerous to people and property in its path. Landslide Events and Impacts Landslides are a common hazard in California. Weathering and the decomposition of geologic materials produces conditions conducive to landslides and human activity further exacerbates many landslide problems. Many landslides are difficult to mitigate, particularly in areas of large historic movement with weak underlying geologic materials. As communities continue to modify the terrain and influence natural processes, it is important to be aware of the physical properties of the underlying soils as they, along with climate, create landslide hazards. Even with proper planning, landslides will continue to threaten the safety of people, property, and infrastructure, but without proper planning, landslide hazards will be even more common and more destructive. The increasing scarcity of build -able land, particularly in urban areas, increases the tendency to build on geologically marginal land. Additionally, hillside housing developments in Southern California are prized for the view lots that they provide. Rock falls occur when blocks of material come loose on steep slopes. Weathering, erosion, or excavations, such as those along highways, can cause falls where the road has been cut through bedrock. They are fast moving with the materials free falling or bouncing down the slope. In falls, material is detached from a steep slope or cliff. The volume of material involved is generally small, but large boulders or blocks of rock can cause significant damage. Earth flows are plastic or liquid movements in which land mass (e.g. soil and rock) breaks up and flows U.S. Geological Survey, htto, / /oubs usgs gov /fs /fs- 0071 -00/ 33. Interagency Hazard Mitigation Team, State Hazard Mitigation Plan (2000) Oregon Emergency Management 34. Ibid. 35. Barrows, Alan and Smith, Ted, DMG Note 13, http : / /www. co n srv. ca. gov/ cgs / information / publications /cg s_notes /note_33/ 77 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 i during movement. Earthquakes often trigger flows.36 Debris flows normally occur when a landslide moves downslope as a semi -fluid mass scouring, or partially scouring soils from the slope along its path. Flows are typically rapidly moving and also tend to increase in volume as they scour out the channel .37 Flows often occur during heavy rainfall, can occur on gentle slopes, and can move rapidly for large distances. Landslide Conditions Landslides are often triggered by periods of heavy rainfall. Earthquakes, subterranean water flow and excavations may also trigger landslides. Certain geologic formations are more susceptible to landslides than others. Human activities, including locating development near steep slopes, can increase susceptibility to landslide events. Landslides on steep slopes are more dangerous because movements can be rapid. Although landslides are a natural geologic process, the incidence of landslides and their impacts on people can be exacerbated by human activities. Grading for road construction and development can increase slope steepness. Grading and construction can decrease the stability of a hill slope by adding weight to the top of the slope, removing support at the base of the slope, and increasing water content. Other human activities effecting landslides include: excavation, drainage and groundwater alterations, and changes in vegetation." Wildland fires in hills covered with chaparral are often a precursor to debris flows in burned out canyons. The extreme heat of a wildfire can create a soil condition in which the earth becomes impervious to water by creating a waxy -like layer just below the ground surface. Since the water cannot be absorbed into the soil, it rapidly accumulates on slopes, often gathering loose particles of soil in to a sheet of mud and debris. Debris flows can often originate miles away from unsuspecting persons, and approach them at a high rate of speed with little warning. Natural Conditions Natural processes can cause landslides or re- activate historical landslide sites. The removal or undercutting of shoreline- supporting material along bodies of water by currents and waves produces countless small slides each year. Seismic tremors can trigger landslides on slopes historically known to have landslide movement. Earthquakes can also cause additional failure (lateral spreading) that can occur on gentle slopes above steep streams and riverbanks. Particularly Hazardous Landslide Areas Locations at risk from landslides or debris flows include areas with one or more of the following conditions: • On or close to steep hills; • Steep road -cuts or excavations; • Existing landslides or places of known historic landslides (such sites often have tilted power lines, trees tilted in various directions, cracks in the ground, and irregular - surfaced ground); • Steep areas where surface runoff is channeled, such as below culverts, V - shaped valleys, canyon bottoms, and steep stream channels; and • Fan - shaped areas of sediment and boulder accumulation at the outlets of canyons. • Canyon areas below hillside and mountains that have recently (within 1 -6 years) been subjected to a wildland fire. Impacts of Development Although landslides are a natural occurrence, human impacts can substantially affect the potential for landslide failures in the City of Santa Monica. Proper planning and geotechnical engineering can be exercised to reduce the threat of safety of people, property, and infrastructure. 36. Robert Olson Associates, Metro Regional Hazard Mitigation and Planning Guide (June 1999) Metro 37. Ibid. 38. Planning For Natural Hazards: The Oregon Technical Resource Guide, Department of Land Conservation and Development (2000), Ch 5. 78 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Excavation and Grading Slope excavation is common in the development of home sites or roads on sloping terrain. Grading these slopes can result in some slopes that are steeper than the pre- existing natural slopes. Since slope steepness is a major factor in landslides, these steeper slopes can be at an increased risk for landslides. The added weight of fill placed on slopes can also result in an increased landslide hazard. Small landslides can be fairly common along roads, in either the road cut or the road fill. Landslides occurring below new construction sites are indicators of the potential impacts stemming from excavation. Drainage and Groundwater Alterations Water flowing through or above ground is often the trigger for landslides. Any activity that increases the amount of water flowing into landslide -prone slopes can increase landslide hazards. Broken or leaking water or sewer lines can be especially problematic, as can water retention facilities that direct water onto slopes. However, even lawn irrigation in landslide prone locations can result in damaging landslides. Ineffective storm water management and excess runoff can also cause erosion and increase the risk of landslide hazards. Drainage can be affected naturally by the geology and topography of an area; Development that results in an increase in impervious surface impairs the ability of the land to absorb water and may redirect water to other areas. Channels, streams, ponding, and erosion on slopes all indicate potential slope problems. Road and driveway drains, gutters, downspouts, and other constructed drainage facilities can concentrate and accelerate flow. Ground saturation and concentrated velocity flow are major causes of slope problems and may trigger landslides.39 Changes in Vegetation Removing vegetation from very steep slopes can increase landslide hazards. Areas that experience wildfire and land clearing for development may have long periods of increased landslide hazard. Also, certain types of ground cover have a much greater need for constant watering to remain green. Changing away from native ground cover plants may increase the risk of landslide. LANDSLIDE HAZARD ASSESSMENT Hazard Identification Identifying hazardous locations is an essential step towards implementing more informed mitigation activities. Vulnerability and Risk Vulnerability assessment for landslides will assist in predicting how different types of property and population groups will be affected by a hazard.40 Data that includes specific landslide -prone and debris flow locations in the city can be used to assess the population and total value of property at risk from future landslide occurrences. While a quantitative vulnerability assessment (an assessment that describes number of lives or amount of property exposed to the hazard) has not yet been conducted for the City of Santa Monica landslide events, there are many qualitative factors that point to potential vulnerability. Landslides can impact major transportation arteries, blocking residents from essential services and businesses. Past landslide events have caused major property damage or significantly impacted city residents, and continuing to map city landslide and debris flow areas will help in preventing future loss. Factors included in assessing landslide risk include population and property distribution in the hazard area, the frequency of landslide or debris flow occurrences, slope steepness, soil characteristics, and precipitation intensity. This type of analysis could generate estimates of the damages to the city due to a specific landslide or debris flow event. At the time of publication of this plan, data was insufficient to conduct a risk analysis 39. Homeowners Guide for Landslide Control, Hillside Flooding, Debris Flows, Soil Erosion, (March 1997) 40. Burby, R. (Ed.) Cooperating With Nature (1998) Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. 79 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 i HISTORY OF REGIONAL TSUNAMIS Local The local tsunami may be the most serious threat as it strikes suddenly, sometimes before the earthquake shaking stops. Alaska has had six serious local tsunamis in the last 80 years and Japan has had many more. Local History of Tsunamis Tsunamis have been reported since ancient times. They have been documented extensively in California since 1806. Although the majority of tsunamis have occurred in Northern California, Southern California has been impacted as well. In the 1930's, four tsunamis struck the LA, Orange County, and San Diego coastal areas. In Orange County the tsunami wave reached heights of 20 feet or more above sea level. In 1964, following the Alaska 8.2 earthquake, tidal surges of approximately 4 feet to 5 feet hit the Huntington Harbour area causing moderate damage. Table 2.4.1 Tsunami Events in California 1930 -2004 Date Location Maximum Run up *(m) Earthquake Magnitude 08131/1930 Redondo Beach 6.10 5.2 08131/1930 Santa Monica 6.10 5.2 0813111930 Venice 6.10 5.2 03/11/1933 La Jolla 0.10 6.3 03/11/1933 Long Beach 010 6.3 08/21/1934 Newport Beach 12.00 Unknown 02/09/1941 San Diego Unknown 6.6 1011811989 Monterey 0.40 7.1 10/18/1989 Moss Landing 1.00 7.1 10/18/1989 Santa Cruz 0.10 7.1 04/25/1992 Arena Cove 0.10 7.1 04/25/1992 Monterey 0.10 7.1 09101/1994 Crescent City 0.14 7.1 11/04/2000 Point Arguello 5.00 Source: Worldwide Tsunami Database www.ngdc.noaa.gov * Maximum Run up (M) -The maximum water height above sea level in meters. The run -up is the height the tsunami reached above a reference level such as mean sea level. It is not always clear which reference level was used. TSUNAMI HAZARD ASSESSMENT "I Hazard Identification A tsunami threat to the City of Santa Monica is considered low to moderate. Santa Monica occupies a central position along the arching shoreline of Santa Monica Bay. The beach, which has grown through accretion, is several hundred feet wide —one of the widest stretches of beach in this part of southern California. 107 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 51912014 Santa Monica sits atop a coastal plain that is defined on its northern boundary by Santa Monica Canyon. This deep arroyo attracted Native American settlements and then the area's first European settlement in the 1860s —a summer colony for residents of the new City of Los Angeles some twelve miles inland along the foot of the mountains. South of the canyon, the rugged terrain gives way to the gently south sloping upland of the City's north side. The land descends to a historic drainage channel that ran west to the sea along the general line of the present -day Santa Monica freeway. This drainage formed a distinctive draw that originally marked the edge of the Palisades and defined the City's southerly border. It is this collision of this south sloping upland with the southwesterly trending coastline that creates the City's most memorable topographic feature —the Palisades —a sheer cliff of fragile sandstone that rises about 100 feet above the coast that separates the northern portion of the City from the beach below. Damage factors of tsunamis Tsunamis cause damage in three ways: inundation, wave impact on structures, and erosion. "Strong, tsunami - induced currents lead to the erosion of foundations and the collapse of bridges and sea walls. Flotation and drag forces move houses and overturn railroad cars. Considerable damage is caused by the resultant floating debris, including boats and cars that become dangerous projectiles that may crash into buildings, break power lines, and may start fires. Fires from damaged ships in ports or from ruptured coastal oil storage tanks and refinery facilities, can cause damage greater than that inflicted directly by the tsunami. Of increasing concern is the potential effect of tsunami draw down, when receding waters uncover cooling water intakes of nuclear power plants. "45 A United States Government study reports that, "Local earthquakes will not generate a tsunami, in this area'. Tsunamis are due to large off -shore earthquakes and ocean landslides. Dangerous tsunamis would most likely originate in the Aleutian and Chilean offshore submarine trenches. The City of Santa Monica has western facing beaches that are vulnerable to tsunamis or tidal surges from the west. 4s. fbid 108 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9!2014 Predicted wave heights, exclusive of tide and storm generated wave heights are: For a 100 year occurrence For a 500 year occurrence 4.0 feet minimum 6.8 feet minimum 6.6 feet average 11.4 feet average 9.2 feet maximum 16.0 feet maximum According to the Modern Tsunami Run -up Map the entire coastline of Santa Monica would be severely impacted. During the summer months, the City of Santa Monica can attract over 200,000 people a day to its beaches. If a tsunami were to occur it could devastate the entire coastal area. Map 2.4.1 Tsunami Run Up In Santa Monica "� a ray r _ �' � � •>7,1�k`y2'N� �� Los Angeles�r Tsunami Hazard:�=� z Maximum Runup O I 4 ylti -i , rr i5 �' � i,��,yy •- 1-��t � II i int,->�,+{} hi . • } 1 f� Lrv. � �.'i TSUNAMI WATCHES AND WARNINGS Warning System The tsunami warning system in the United States is a function of the National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration's (NOAA) National Weather Service. Development of the tsunami warning system was impelled by the disastrous waves generated in Alaska in April 1946, which surprised Hawaii and the U.S. West Coast, taking a heavy toll in life and property. The disastrous 1964 tsunami resulted in the development of a regional warning system in Alaska. The Alaska Tsunami Warning Center is in Palmer, Alaska. This facility is the nerve center for an elaborate telemetry network of remote seismic stations in Alaska, Washington, California, Colorado, and other 109 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 Appendix A: Resource Directory Appendix B: Public Participation Process --- -- --- ---------- - - - - -- - -- Appendix C: Economic Analysis of Natural Hazard Mitigation Projects Appendix D: List of Acronyms ..... .------------------ ............................... .---- Appendix E: Glossary.. Table of Contents 150 152 175 178 179 149 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 RESOURCE DIRECTORY 2014 CITY OF SANTA MONICA (www.smgov.net) SANTA MONICA MALIBU UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT (www.smmusd.org) District Office 310- 450 -8338 SANTA MONICA COLLEGE (www.smc.edu) Main Number 1 310- 434 -4000 150 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 PHOXIE CITY HALL INFORMATION DESK 310 - 458 -8411 HOUSING AND ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 310 - 458 -5723 CITY MANAGER'S OFFICE 310 - 458 -5538 CITY MANAGER'S OFFICE /OFFICE OF EMERGENCY MANAGEMENT 310 - 458 -2263 CITY MANAGER'S OFFICE /OFFICE OF SUSTAINABILITY AND THE ENVIRONMENT 310 - 458 -2213 CITY MANAGER'S OFFICE /OFFICE OF PIER MANAGEMENT 310 -458 -2299 COMMUNITY AND CULTURAL SERVICES 310- 458 -5616 LIBRARY 310 - 458 -8608 CITY CLERK 310- 458 -5007 CITY ATTORNEY 310 - 458 -8330 FINANCE 310- 458 -8283 PUBLIC WORKS 310- 458 -5546 POLICE 310- 458 -8401 FIRE 310 - 458 -5374 RENT CONTROL 310 - 458 -5578 BIG BLUE BUS 310 - 458 -5811 PLANNING AND COMMUNITY DEVELOPMENT 310 - 458 -5067 HUMAN RESOURCES 310 - 458 -8256 INFORMATION SYSTEMS DEPARTMENT 310- 458 -5776 SANTA MONICA MALIBU UNIFIED SCHOOL DISTRICT (www.smmusd.org) District Office 310- 450 -8338 SANTA MONICA COLLEGE (www.smc.edu) Main Number 1 310- 434 -4000 150 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 SANTA MONICA HOSPITALS St. Johns 310 - 829 -5511 www.newstiohns.org UCLA 424 - 259 -6000 www.uclahealth.org AMERICAN RED CROSS American Red Cross of Santa Monica 1 310 - 394 -3773 1 www.redcross.orcilcalsanta- monica American Red Cross 24 hour hotline: 213 - 739 -5202 151 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Effective planning efforts result in high quality and useful plans, but written plans are only one element in the process. The planning process is as important as the plan itself. A successful planning process forges partnerships and brings together a cross - section of government agencies, the public, and other stakeholders to reach consensus on how to achieve a desired outcome or resolve a community issue. Applying an inclusive and transparent process adds validity to the plan. The result is a common set of community values and widespread support for directing financial, technical, and human resources to an agreed upon action. The planning process was an integral part of the City's Hazard Mitigation Plan. This appendix describes, in greater detail, the City's planning process and how the Hazard Mitigation Plan evolved. 2013 -2014 Planning Process Approach for the Hazard Mitigation Plan Update The City Of Santa Monica staff facilitated opportunities for public inclusion in the update of the plan, in order to gather input and ideas from Santa Monica residents and stakeholders. The community was invited to participate to provide input on mitigation activities and priorities for increasing the level of disaster preparedness and resilience. Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Executive Committee:: The vital component of the 5 -year Mitigation update effort was to identify the Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Executive Committee. The Committee consisted of key representatives from the City. Identification of this core group was important in ensuring implementation and support of the mitigation plan. Santa Monica considered the following when soliciting participation: Ability to speak for the City and /or their department/organization Provide visionary characteristics Have desire and time to provide meaningful contributions Understanding of local politics, issues, and needs Title Comment Date Review of work plan and identification of goals, Kick off Mitigation Meeting objectives, and strategies 07/18/2013 Local Hazard Mitigation Plan Executive Committee Review of Plan by the Executive Planning Committee. 9105/2013 Review of Goals and Objectives with Executive Meeting with Plan Committee Committee. 9/25/2013 Meeting with executive committee and community Meeting with Plan Committee partners 10/15/2013 152 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 FIGURE -- SAMPLE MEETING AGENDA 153 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 FIGURE — SAMPLE MEETING HANDOUT Hazard. Mitigation Plan Update - Hazards rw - _ OE Hazard Mitigation: Hazards and Risk Assessment 00,y`S'nn Afm:kg GI Existing Hazards ACTION ITEM: 1. Please review the existing Hazards that were Included In the previous version. 2. Is there a need to update /modify the existing Hazards for the updated version? In other words, please consider any new challenges and vulnerabilities that should be reassessed and Included In the new version of the plan. 3. Are there specific analyses or issues about a specific hazard that need further clarification? L Earthuuake (Please Provide Notes /Comments) IL Landslide (Please Provide Notes /Comments) III. Flood (Please Provide Notes /Comments) IV. Tsunami (Please Provide Notes /Comments) V. Wildfires (Please Provide Notes /Comments) VI. Severe Windstorm /Thunderstorm (Please Provide Notes /Comments) 1 154 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Hazard. Mitigation Plan Update - Hazards New Hazards ACTION ITEM: 1. Please review the list of newly proposed Hazards that will be Included in the updated version. Are there any additional hazards that should be considered? 2. Please consider any unique challenges and vulnerabilities that should be assessed as it relates to hazard mitigation and overall preparedness. 3. What are some of the unique concerns about these hazards that may potentially put Santa Monica at rlsk7 1. Expo LRT (Please Provide Notes /Comments) I. Large -scale Events OA Marathon) (Please Provide Notes /Comments) III. Transportation: Malor Air Crash (Please Provide Notes /Comments) IV. Hazardous Materials (Please Provide Notes /Comments) V. Terrorism (Please Provide Notes /Comments) Other Hazards for Consideration • Drought • Extreme Heat o Sinkholes /Erosion • Space (i.e. Solar Flares) • Windstorms • Power Failure • Nuclear Power Plant Incident (San Onofre Nuclear Power Plant) o Water/Wastewater incident 2 • Civil Unrest • Cyber Security Incident • Animal and Plant Disease Outbreak • Food Borne Illness incident o Meningitis I Plague • Anthrax • Pandemic /Epidemic • Water Contamination 155 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 156 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Public Inclusion and Participation: Staffed a booth at the Silicon Beach Gets Ready Event, an emergency preparedness event for businesses in Santa Monica. Distributed flyers and surveys about the Mitigation Plan to attendees. LHMP was discussed at monthly meetings of volunteer groups at a meeting of OEM volunteers Created and disseminated a survey about the LHMP throughout the City. The survey was posted on the City's website for public input. A hard copy of the survey was also available at the Libraries and other locations throughout Santa Monica. �Ll�r ■�f11llilALI��IIS7[!]�4 Title Comment Date Silicon Gets Ready Emergency Preparedness Event for Businesses 10/14/2013 Great CA Shake Out EOC exercise, review of LHMP goals, and survey 10/17/2013 Launch of Online Survey Community Survey for feedback to integrate into LHMP 11/06/2013 Meeting with community members regarding the LHMP Community Meeting process and feedback 11/20/2013 FIGURE — ADVERTISEMENT FOR SILICON GETS READY EVENT lend x illew � Naas. An Emergency Preparedness Event for Businesses w* So Cal Earthquake Threat Business Preparedness: Public & Private Pirdearehl, Keynote Speaker Active Shooter in the Workplace Presentation Keynote Spero Riordan IT Disaster Preparedness & Rrororq 19 Ameroen Red Cross 'Prepare Santa Maurice' Monday, October 14, 2013 Chamber of Comment: Planning Tuel for Businesses 'Hands only CPR Denro 8AM -3PM @ RAND Corporation �. Register Online @ www.smgov.net /oem �f p m ®am ® Snntnw�MOnica .,.� ................... 157 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 FIGURE — ATTENDANCE LIST FOR SILICON GETS READY EVENT Silicon Beach Gets Ready October 14, 2013 LAST NAME FIRST NAME EMAIL Adams Tom io hnea @sosproducts.com Almada Robert robert.almada @smgov.net Aragon Enrique earagon @unex.ucla.edu Arispe Phyllis JOIFULEIMATURE@yahoo.com Asch Lauralee la u ra lee.asch@smgov.net Baddeley Lucy lucv.baddelev @smgov. net Battle Matthew Beckwith Jeremiah Benusovich Mariya drmariyaben(Tgmail.com Braun Kim kim.braun@smgov.net Brown Chris chris@downtownsm.com Ca rter Gary ga ry.ca rter@smgoy. net Carter Mackenzie mackenzie @downtownsm.com Cenclrulo Jason Chu Ronson Cord Jason Cossey Chad Crawford Natalie Crow Tara tcrow @hea Ith ebay.org Davies Judith idavies66@aol.com De Pourtales Gigi events @smchamber.com Dickson Blue Dishman Les Doyle Jennifer Elliott Paulita Pei liott@blockbvblock.com Ergina Alan Alan.Ergina @alliedbarton.com Ferguson Scott maria.cabral @smgov.net Forkel Eric Furrows Jeff Gelling Cheryl cheryLgellingEgmail.com Gibbs Les Ieswgibbs @gmail.com Gonzales Bob Bob.gonzales@umgtemp.com Gordon Simone commissionersimonegordon @gmail.com Gould Rod Guzman Benjamin Han Areum Hansen Carl govaffairs@smchamber.com Harb Jeremy Jeremy. Harb@umusic.com Harris James jim @santamonicapiecorg Hochbrueckner Cindy cindy.hochbrueckner @ cbre.com 158 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Hoganson Laura Ihoga nson@ Internatlona l Med lca lCo rps.org Holbrook Bob Horrigan Pat Jalali Nika nialali @santamonica.com Jeo Chintya simplynature@yahoo.com Jimenez Raymond Joffe Chris Jones megan meganmail @gmail.com Kata irl lao Kelpp RachaeI Rachael.Keipp @umusic.com Kennedy Christie Kirisits Rebecca rkirisits @wyndham.com Klinsport Brian BRIAN. KLINSPORT@G RAM MY.COM LAPRISE ADRIAN ai.laprise@rudysbarbershop.com Laridaen Dana Lee Debbie Debbie @downtownsm.com LePrevost Kathy ka thy. le prevost @smgoy,net Lil lestol Troy troy. Ii Ilestol @gra m m y.com Linares Henry Li nski Tiffany tiffa ny.li nski @cbre, corn Lyness Fran flvnessl0 @verizon.net Marco Adrienne aimarco77 @vahoo,com McIntire Erin Meredith Marc Miele Julia imiele @smywca.org Moeller Pam Montiel Raquel rmontiel@wyndham.com Morris Patrick Pa trick @buildingA,corn Morrison Tatlana tatiana.morrison @smgov.net Morrissey Sam sam.morrissey @smgov.net Nagle Kelly knagle@santamonica.com Nahass Mitch mnahass @Iionsgate.com Nunez Jacob Payne Dennis Penna Evelyn Perez Ernesto ernesto.perez @smgov. net Phan Emma Post;-) Suzanne suzanne.post @smgov.net Rahme Nedda Riordan Richard Roberts Todd Roberts Victoria Rosen Laurel president @smchamber.com Semko Ken kenneth.semko @smgov.net Solnick Spector Mark Batsheva msolnick@msn.com b,spector @santamonicaumc.org Staniunas Peter Summers Jodi iodi @iodisummers.com Takiguchi Ron ron.takiguchi @smgov.net Teang Antonius simplynature @yahoo.com Teang Paulus simplynature @yahoo.com Thomas Julie julie.thomas@redcross.org Vazquez Mike Wasley Shannon Weeden Bonita Weinberg Paul pau I. W eln berg @smgov. net Westall Jon Jonathan westall @playstation.sony.com Whalen Tim timw@gEammy.com White Chelsey Williams Donn Wolf Jory -jory.wolf@smgov.net 160 1 Santa Monica local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 COMMUNITY SURVEY RESULTS The following is a brief overview of some of the key findings in the Community Survey that was conducted in November of 2013. The survey was posted on the City's website for public input. A hard copy of the survey was also available at the libraries and other locations throughout Santa Monica. 140 120 11 OED 60 20 N Which of the following hazards have you or anyone in your household experienced in the last 20years within the City of Santa Monica? M Civil Disobedience /Riots ® Drought 0 Earthquake -'I Erosion 0 Wild fire ® Flood ® Hazardous Materials 0 Household Fire Fa Land /Rockslide Pipeline Failure Severe Weather (wind, lightning, winter storms, extreme heat, etc .) M None 161 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 162 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 163 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 140 120 on IM 60 GL 20 J Which of the preparedness actions below has your household taken to prepare for a hazard event? a First Aid /CPR training n CERT Training ia Family emergency preparedness plan m Disaster - proofing home ® Conduct regular fire drills ® Conduct regular earthquake drills H Backing up important documents, records, and files Lm Home evacuation /escape plan F1 Designating a meeting place for household members Identify utility shutoffs 164 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 165 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 I 140 ® Newspapers ME 120 111 Informational Brochures --- ® Local Civic Groups (Rotary Club, 100 Lion's Club, etc.) ON M Faith -based groups /organizations 80= (Church) E: nom' . -. Bulletin Board LmCommunity 60 r ®Public Library f t 40 E N Local N News 20 N Cable Access Channels 0 Which of the following below are important sources of M Community Web site hazard /disaster information and education for you N� Local Radio Stations and your workplace? 166 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 45 `K. 40 35 - -- - -- M $10,000 or above 30 — -- ®$5,000 to $9,999 25 M $1,000 to $4,999 20 y -s Less than $1,000 f M Nothing 15 Is Do not know 10 Not applicable Now much money would you be willing to spend to retrofit your home /property to reduce risks associated with natural disasters (performing seismic upgrades 167 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 BUSINESS SURVEY RESULTS The following is a brief overview of some of the key findings in the Business Survey that was conducted in November of 2013. 20 18 16 14 12 10 8 6 4 2 0 Which of the following hazards have you experienced in the last 20 years while working in the City of Santa Monica? ® Civil Disobedience /Riots ® Drought M Earthquake 11 Erosion ® Wild fire * Flood ® Hazardous Materials IN Household Fire r1 Land /Rockslide ® Pipeline Failure * Severe Weather (wind, lightning, winter storms, extreme heat, etc.) t None 168 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 169 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 30 25 20 M Very concerned 15 10 - -- — ® Somewhat concerned 5 — N Not at all concerned p -�I�� OR Do not know —{ Which of the following best describes the extent to which you are concerned about the possibility of Santa Monica being impacted by a hazard /disaster event? 169 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 30 _ 25 IN `` Very familiar � 20 1 Em Somewhat familiar M Very prepared 10 r M Somewhat prepared 15 F Il Not applicable [d Not at all prepared 10 10 _ -- a Do not know 5 a ✓. Q Not applicable 0 --------------- Which of the following best describes the extent to which your workplace is prepared for a hazard event? 170 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 20 IN `` Very familiar � 15 1 Em Somewhat familiar 10 r a Not at all familiar F Il Not applicable 0 Which of the following extent to which you are familiar with business continuity planning? 170 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 171 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 35 30 -� 25 ' M Yes 20 M No 15 / 1.1 Do not know 10 ® Not applicable Does your workplace have a continuity plan and /or emergency preparedness plan? 171 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 40 35 30 25 20 15 10 Imo.". L Which of the preparedness actions below has your workplace taken to prepare fora hazard event? Is First Aid /CPR training ® CERTTraining W Disaster -proof work spaces and essential equipment in Internal and external communication plan for workplace D Conduct regular fire drills * Conduct regular earthquake drills ® Backup important documents, records, and files m Workplace evacuation /escape plan * Designated a business meeting place N Identify utility shutoffs M Prepared a disaster preparedness kills) * Installed smoke and carbon monoxide detectors Hazards insurance (Flood, Fire, Earthquake, etc.) -= Fire Extinguisher None 172 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 173 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 3o )s ]0 n 10 w 0 WI*hoflln(ollI belmvueAnpmlanl smveetofMtnd/dlmtlel IffortuAletc W edotallou to, yoo and put 1votFpbte) It Neco"W" elnlooeti.CeM.111umt C,LueudoeGo pe rolary Club, Lions Club, ele) v Failb AUMd"oupSfulganioul..' ICbo(lQ It eomlrenby 0i1104, 111 It Pow M., ahem Ntwoo m Camoanw WAn4a vlaal mwwl v Pose Oke m eubec safely III I ni, vole, ele) a SAOnIt A COU n14 /totA {alu MCM v Spial Wda(C— look, imAles, elc.) CAOwicmllM., s kubta boaW,dI tocalbuoo— ofoounily ¢foonl0u6Ee Aceoc. co Ciopaigns (Nali.eIIoCpamdnen Mmlb, Fkeomy *w"'k, elc) a Waldol Atoutb OI... my 1aftly/Repaled16 CVenu c Cculuumily NOU @Ue6 174 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Economic Analysis for Evaluating Mitigation Strategies The approaches used to identify the costs and benefits associated with natural hazard mitigation strategies, measures, or projects fall into a number of categories. This mitigation plan addresses the following: Benefit/Cost Analysis STAPLEE When to use the Various Approaches It is important to realize that various funding sources require different types of economic analyses. The following figure is to serve as a guideline for when to use the various approaches. Benefit/Cost Analysis Benefit/cost analysis is a key mechanism used by the state Office of Emergency Services (OES), the Federal Emergency Management Agency, and other state and federal agencies in evaluating hazard mitigation projects, and is required by the Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, Public Law 93 -288, as amended. Benefit/cost analysis is used in natural hazards mitigation to show if the benefits to life and property protected through mitigation efforts exceed the cost of the mitigation activity. Conducting benefit/cost analysis for a mitigation activity can assist communities in determining whether a project is worth undertaking now, in order to avoid disaster - related damages later. 175 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Benefit/cost analysis is based on calculating the frequency and severity of a hazard, avoiding future damages, and risk. In benefit/cost analysis, all costs and benefits are evaluated in terms of dollars, and a net benefit/cost ratio is computed to determine whether a project should be implemented. A project must have a benefit /cost ratio greater than 1 (i.e., the net benefits will exceed the net costs) to be eligible for FEMA funding. Note: some mitigation actions identified may not ultimately be implemented due to prohibitive costs, scale, low benefit/cost analysis ratios, or other concerns. STAPLE /E and Cost Effectiveness Assessment Considering detailed benefit /cost or cost - effectiveness analysis for every possible mitigation activity could be very time consuming and may not be practical. There are some alternate approaches for conducting a quick evaluation of the proposed mitigation activities which could be used to identify those mitigation activities that merit more detailed assessment. Using the STAPLE /E criteria, mitigation activities can be evaluated quickly by steering committees in a synthetic fashion. This set of criteria requires the committee to assess the mitigation activities based on the Social, Technical, Administrative, Political, Legal, Economic and Environmental (STAPLE /E) constraints and opportunities of implementing the particular mitigation item in the community. The following method was used to assist in the prioritization of the mitigation actions. Social: ❑ Is the proposed action socially acceptable to the community? ❑ Are there equity issues involved that would mean that one segment of the community is treated unfairly? ❑ Will the action cause social disruption? Technical: ❑ Will the proposed action work? ❑ Will it create more problems than it solves? ❑ Does it solve a problem or only a symptom? ❑ Is it the most useful action in light of other community goals? Administrative: U Can the community implement the action? ❑ Is there someone to coordinate and lead the effort? ❑ Is there sufficient funding, staff, and technical support available? ❑ Are there ongoing administrative requirements that need to be met? Political: ❑ Is the action politically acceptable? ❑ Is there public support both to implement and to maintain the project? Legal: ❑ Is the community authorized to implement the proposed action? Is there a clear legal basis or precedent for this activity? ❑ Are there legal side effects? 176 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 ❑ Is the proposed action allowed by the comprehensive plan, or must the comprehensive plan be amended to allow the proposed action? i i Will the community be liable for action or lack of action? ❑ Will the activity be challenged? Economic: ❑ What are the costs and benefits of this action? ❑ Do the benefits exceed the costs? ❑ Are initial, maintenance, and administrative costs taken into account? ❑ Has funding been secured for the proposed action? If not, what are the potential funding sources (public, non - profit, and private ?) ❑ How will this action affect the fiscal capability of the community? ❑ What burden will this action place on the tax base or local economy? ❑ What are the budget and revenue effects of this activity? ❑ Does the action contribute to other community goals, such as capital improvements or economic development? ❑ What benefits will the action provide? Environmental: ❑ How will the action impact the environment? ❑ Will the action need environmental regulatory approvals? ❑ Will it meet local and state regulatory requirements? ❑ Are endangered or threatened species likely to be affected? 177 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 ADA Americans with Disabilities Act ALOHA Areal Locations of Hazardous Atmospheres BFE Base Flood Elevation BSSC Building Seismic Safety Council CCR California Code of Regulations CDF California Division of Forestry and Fire Protection CERT Community Emergency Response Team CEQA California Environmental Quality Act CFR Code of Federal Regulations CIP Capital Improvement Plans CRS Community Rating System DCS Disaster Communication Services DEM Digital Elevation Model DFIRM Digital Flood Insurance Rate Map DMA Disaster Mitigation Act DMG Division of Mines and Geology DWR Division of Water Resources EAP Employee Assistance Program EMA Emergency Management Agency EPA Environmental Protection Agency EOC Emergency Operations Center ESP Emergency Survival Program FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency FIRM Flood Insurance Rate Maps GIS Geographic Information Systems HAZUS -MH Hazards USA Multi- Hazard HMPs Hazard Mitigation Plans IBHS Institute for Business & Home Safety IFR Interim Final Rule ISD Information Systems Department LHMP Local Hazard Mitigation Plan MHMP Multi- Hazard Mitigation Plan NEPA National Environmental Policy Act NCDC National Climatic Data Center NFIP National Flood Insurance Program NLIC National Landslide Information Center NOAA National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration NRCS Natural Resource Conservation Service NSF National Science Foundation OEM Office of Emergency Management OES Office of Emergency Services OPR Office of Planning and Research OSHPD Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development PCD Department of Planning and Community Development SCEC Southern California Earthquake Center 178 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Antiterrorism: Defensive measures used to reduce the vulnerability of individuals, forces, and property to terrorist acts. (Source: US Department of Defense, Report of the Secretary of Defense to the President and the Congress, 2000.) Asset: Any manmade or natural feature that has value, including, but not limited to people; buildings; infrastructure like bridges, roads, and sewer and water systems; lifelines like electricity and communication resources; or environmental, cultural, or recreational features like parks, dunes, wetlands, or landmarks. Base Flood: Flood that has a 1 percent probability of being equaled or exceeded in any given year. Also known as the 100 -year flood. Base Flood Elevation (BFE): Elevation of the base flood in relation to a specified datum, such as the National Geodetic Vertical Datum of 1929. The Base Flood Elevation is used as the standard for the National Flood Insurance Program. Benefit: Net project outcomes, usually defined in monetary terms. Benefits may include direct and indirect effects. For the purposes of conducting a benefit -cost analysis of proposed mitigation measures, benefits are limited to specific, measurable risk reduction factors, including a reduction in expected property losses (building, contents, and function) and protection of human life. Benefit -cost Analysis (BCA): Benefit -cost analysis is a systematic, quantitative method of comparing the projected benefits to projected costs of a project or policy. It is used as a measure of cost effectiveness. Biological Event: An occurrence of a biological substance that poses a threat to the health of living organisms, primarily that of humans. This can include medical waste or samples of a microorganism, virus or toxin (from a biological source) that can impact human health. It can also include substances harmful to animals. Coastal Erosion: A hydrologic hazard, and is defined by the wearing away of land or the removal of beach or dune sediments by wave action, tidal currents, wave currents, or drainage. Coastal erosion may result from a natural process, or it may be the result of human action. Coastal Subsidence: The loss of coastal surface elevation due to the removal of subsurface support. Subsidence can be the result of both nature and human action. Some natural subsidence occurs over long periods of time, due to the natural settling process of millions of year's accumulation of sediments. Coastal Zone: The area along the shore where the ocean meets the land as the surface of the land rises above the ocean. This land /water interface includes barrier islands, estuaries, beaches, coastal wetlands, and land areas having direct drainage to the ocean. Community Rating System (CRS): CRS is a program that provides incentives for National Flood Insurance Program communities to complete activities that reduce flood hazard risk. When the community completes specified activities, the insurance premiums of the policyholders in those communities are reduced. 179 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Debris: The scattered remains of assets broken or destroyed in a hazard event. Debris caused by a wind or water hazard event can cause additional damage to other assets. Disaster Mitigation Act of 2000 (DMA 2000): DMA 2000 (Public Law 106 -390) is the latest legislation to improve the planning process. It was signed into law on October 10, 2000. This new legislation reinforces the importance of mitigation planning and emphasizes planning for disasters before they occur. Drought: The consequence of anticipated natural precipitation reduction over an extended period of time, usually a season or more in length. Erosion: Wearing away of the land surface by detachment and movement of soil and rock fragments, during a flood or storm or over a period of years, through the action of wind, water, or other geologic processes. Extreme Wind: The horizontal motion of the air past a given point. Winds begin with differences in air pressures. Pressure that's higher at one place than another sets up a force pushing from the high toward the low pressure. The greater the difference in pressures, the stronger the force. The distance between the area of high pressure and the area of low pressure also determines how fast the moving air is accelerated. Meteorologists refer to the force that starts the wind flowing as the "pressure gradient force." High and low pressures are relative. There's no set number that divides high and low pressure. Wind is used to describe the prevailing direction from which the wind is blowing with the speed given usually in miles per hour or knots. Fault: A fracture in the continuity of a rock formation caused by a shifting or dislodging of the earth's crust, in which adjacent surfaces are differentially displaced parallel to the plane of fracture. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA): Independent agency created in 1979 to provide a single point of accountability for all federal activities related to disaster mitigation and emergency preparedness, response, and recovery. Flood Depth: Height of the floodwater surface above the ground surface. Flood Hazard Area: The area inundated by a flood of a given magnitude on a map. Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM): Map of a community, prepared by FEMA, shows both the special flood hazard areas and the risk premium zones applicable to the community under the National Flood Insurance Program. Flood Zone: A geographical area shown on a FIRM that reflects the severity or type of flooding in the area. Floodplain: Any land area, including watercourse, susceptible to partial or complete inundation by water from any source. Hazard: A source of potential danger or adverse condition. Hazard Event: A specific occurrence of a particular type of hazard. Hazard Identification: The process of identifying hazards that threaten an area. Hazard Mitigation: Sustained actions taken to reduce or eliminate long -term risk from hazards and their effects. I 180 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Hazardous Materials Incident: A biological, chemical or physical agent with the potential to cause harm to the environment or people on its own or when combined with other factors or materials. HAZUS (Hazards U.S.): A GIS- based, nationally standardized, loss estimation tool developed by FEMA. Infrastructure: Refers to the public services of a community that have a direct impact on the quality of life. Infrastructure includes communication technology such as phone lines or Internet access, vital services such as public water supplies and sewer treatment facilities, and includes an area's transportation system such as airports, heliports, highways, bridges, tunnels, roadbeds, overpasses, railways, bridges, rail yards, depots; and waterways, canals, locks, seaports, ferries, harbors, dry docks, piers, and regional dams. Landslide: Downward movement of a slope and materials under the force of gravity. Lightning: An atmospheric discharge of electricity accompanied by thunder, which typically occurs during thunderstorms, and sometimes during volcanic eruptions or dust storms. In the atmospheric electrical discharge, a leader of a bolt of lightning can travel at speeds of 130,000 MPH, and can reach temperatures approaching 54,000 °F, hot enough to fuse silica sand into glass. Magnitude: A measure of the strength of a hazard event. The magnitude (also referred to as severity) of a given hazard event is usually determined using technical measures specific to the hazard. Mitigate: To cause something to become less harsh or hostile, to make less severe or painful. Mitigation Plan: Systematically evaluating community policies, actions, and tools, and setting goals for implementation over the long term that will result in a reduction in risk and minimize future losses community -wide. National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP): Federal program created by Congress in 1968 that makes flood insurance available in communities that enact minimum floodplain management regulations as indicated in 44 CFR §60.3. National Weather Service (NWS): Prepares and issues flood, severe weather, and coastal storm warnings and can provide technical assistance to federal and state entities in preparing weather and flood warning plans. Preparedness: Actions that strengthen the capability of government, citizens, and communities to respond to disasters. Probability: A statistical measure of the likelihood that a hazard event will occur. Recovery: The actions taken by an individual or community after a catastrophic event to restore order and lifelines in a community. Risk: The estimated impact that a hazard would have on people, services, facilities, and structures in a community; the likelihood of a hazard event resulting in an adverse condition that causes injury or damage. Risk is often expressed in relative terms such as a high, moderate, or low likelihood of sustaining damage above a particular threshold due to a specific type of hazard event. It also can be expressed in terms of potential monetary losses associated with the intensity of the hazard. Stafford Act: The Robert T. Stafford Disaster Relief and Emergency Assistance Act, PL 100 -107 was signed into law November 23, 1988 and amended the Disaster Relief Act of 1974, PL 93 -288. The Stafford Act is the statutory authority for most federal disaster response activities, especially as they pertain to FEMA and its programs. 181 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Stakeholder: Individual or group that will be affected in any way by an action or policy. They include businesses, private organizations, and citizens. State Hazard Mitigation Officer (SHMO): The representative of state government who is the primary point of contact with FEMA, other state and federal agencies, and local units of government in the planning and implementation of pre- and post- disaster mitigation activities. Tectonic Plate: Torsionally rigid, thin segments of the earth's lithosphere that may be assumed to move horizontally and adjoin other plates. It is the friction between plate boundaries that cause seismic activity. Terrorism: Violence committed by groups or individuals in order to intimidate a population or government into granting their demands. Topographic: Characterizes maps that show manmade features and indicate the physical shape of the land using contour lines. Vulnerability: Describes how exposed or susceptible to damage an asset is. Vulnerability depends on an asset's construction, contents, and the economic value of its functions. Like indirect damages, the vulnerability of one element of the community is often related to the vulnerability of another. For example, since many businesses depend on uninterrupted electrical power, if an electric substation is flooded it will affect not only the substation itself, but a number of businesses as well. Often, indirect effects can be much more widespread and damaging than direct ones. Vulnerability Assessment: The extent of injury and damage that may result from a hazard event of a given intensity in a given area. The vulnerability assessment should address impacts of hazard events on the existing and future built environment. Wildfire: An uncontrolled fire spreading through vegetative fuels, exposing and possibly consuming structures. 182 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 locations. Tidal data is also telemetered directly to the ATWC from eight Alaskan locations. Tidal data from Canada, Washington, Oregon, and California are available via telephone, teletype, and computer readout. Watch vs. Warning The National Warning System ( NAWAS) is an integral part of the Alaska Tsunami Warning Center. Reports of major earthquakes occurring anywhere in the Pacific Basin that may generate seismic sea waves are transmitted to the Honolulu Observatory for evaluation. An Alaska Tsunami Warning Center is also in place for public notification of earthquakes in the Pacific Basin near Alaska, Canada, and Northern California. The Observatory Staff determines action to be taken and relays warnings over the NAWAS circuits to inform and warn West Coast states. The State NAWAS circuit is used to relay the information to the Orange County Operational Area warning center which will in turn relay the information to local warning points in coastal areas. The same information is also transmitted to local jurisdictions over appropriate radio systems, teletype, and telephone circuits to ensure maximum dissemination. A Tsunami Watch Bulletin is issued if an earthquake has occurred in the Pacific Basin and could cause a tsunami. A Tsunami Warning Bulletin is issued when an earthquake has occurred and a tsunami is spreading across the Pacific Ocean. When a threat no longer exists, a Cancellation Bulletin is issued. When there is a high probability that a tsunami will reach City of Santa Monica, the City will activate its Warning Siren System. When activated, the sirens alert the public to turn on their AM /FM radio and listen to the Emergency Alerting System (EAS). The City Public Information Officer will activate EAS and provide them with a prepared statement of who should evacuate, where to evacuate to and what routes to take. Evacuation Upon receipt of a Tsunami WatchMarning Bulletin, an immediate evaluation will be made of the potential threat to the coastal areas of the City of Santa Monica. After a thorough evaluation, a determination will be made as to the degree of evacuation necessary to eliminate any threats to the resident and visiting populations. Once the degree of evacuation has been determined, the Police Department will begin an immediate evacuation of the low -lying areas that have been determined to be at risk. Officers will block all movements on Pacific Coast Highway except those necessary to gain access to the nearest arterial highway leading away from the ocean. The population will be directed inland using the closest available northbound or eastbound arterial highway. It is imperative that the evacuation routes be kept open and clear at all times. Neighboring jurisdictions along with the American Red Cross would be called upon for care and shelter duties. Displacing residents, utilization of Cities resources, and disaster cleanup can cause an economic hardship on all impacted communities. Vulnerability and Risk With an analysis of tsunami events depicted in the "Local History" section, we can deduce the common tsunami impact areas will include impacts on life, property, infrastructure and transportation. I 110 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 COMMUNITY TSUNAMI ISSUES What is Susceptible to Tsunami? Life and Property The largest impact on the community from a tsunami event is the loss of life and property. Known risk areas include, but are not limited to: • Beaches • Santa Monica Pier • All buildings and apartments on west of Pacific Coast Highway (PCH) • Vehicles and pedestrians on PCH in low lying areas Using the Tsunami Warning and Watch Bulletin would provide time to allow coastal residents to evacuate and seek higher ground for shelter. This would greatly reduce injuries and loss of life. Commercial City of Santa Monica's pier and beaches are world famous. During summer months up to 200,000 people a day come into the community to stay in the beautiful hotels and shop at the unique boutiques. The local government relies heavily on tourism and sales tax. A tsunami event would impact businesses by damaging property and by interrupting business and services. Any residential or commercial structure with weak reinforcement would be susceptible to damage. Infrastructure Tsunamis (and earthquakes) can damage buildings, power lines, and other property and infrastructure due to flooding. Tsunamis can result in collapsed or damaged buildings or blocked roads and bridges, damaged traffic signals, streetlights, and parks, among others. Damage to public water and sewer systems, transportation networks, and flood channels would greatly impact daily life for residents. Roads blocked by objects during a tsunami may have severe consequences to people who are attempting to evacuate or who need emergency services. Emergency response operations can be complicated when roads are blocked or when power supplies are interrupted. Industry and commerce can suffer losses from interruptions in electric services and from extended road closures. They can also sustain direct losses to buildings, personnel, and other vital equipment. There are direct consequences to the local economy resulting from tsunamis related to both physical damages and interrupted services. EXISTING; MITIGATION ACTIVITIES City of Santa Monica has implemented a number of tsunami mitigation activities over the years. Some of the current mitigation programs include: • The City's Warning Siren System • Public Information Plan for Emergency Alerting System (EAS) • Disaster Preparedness Public Education TSUNAMI RESOURCE DIRECTORY 111 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 County Resources Los Angeles County Office of Emergency Management Jeff Terry, Tsunami Coordinator 1375 N. Eastern Ave. Los Angeles, CA., 90063 Telephone: 323 - 980 -2260 www.lacoeoc.org Federal Resources and Programs West Coast & Alaska Tsunami Warning Center The West Coast /Alaska Tsunami Warning Center's objectives are to rapidly locate and size major earthquakes in the Pacific basin, determine their tsunami potential, predict tsunami arrival times and, when possible, runup on the coast, and provide timely and effective tsunami information and warning bulletins for the Pacific coastal populations of California, Oregon, Washington, British Columbia, and Alaska. 910 S. Felton St. Palmer, AK 99645 Ph: 907- 745 -4212 Fx: 907 - 745 -6071 Additional Resources University of Southern California Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering Tsunami Research Group Dr. Costas E. Synolakis, Director 3620 S. Vermont Avenue Kaprielian Hall 210 Los Angeles, CA 90089 -2531 Ph: 213- 740 -0603 Fx: 213 -744 -1426 civileng @usc.edu Endnotes 1, http: // education. sdsc. edu /optiputer /htmILinks /california tsunami.html 2, http: / /www.prh.noaa.goy /itic /library /about tsu /fags.html #1 3. Ibid 4. Ibid 5. Ibid 112 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Why Are Wildfires a Threat to City of Santa Monica History of Wildfires Wildfire Characteristics ----------- -- - .......... .... .. ... ....... Wildfire Hazard Identification Vulnerability and Risk Community Wildfire Issues What Is Susceptible to Wildfires? ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, , , ,,_ Wildfire Resource Directory., ------------- ...... ............. 113 Table of Contents ..... -... -.114 -114 116 118 °- °-......... -.119 ° ........... ..119 119 123 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 For thousands of years, fires have been a natural part of the ecosystem in Southern California. However, wildfires present a substantial hazard to life and property in communities built within or adjacent to hillsides and mountainous areas. There is a huge potential for losses due to wildland /urban interface fires in Southern California. According to the California Division of Forestry (CDF), there were over seven thousand reportable fires in California in 2003, with over one million acres burned '46 According to CDF statistics, in the October, 2003 Firestorms, over 4,800 homes were destroyed and 22 lives were lost 41 The 2003 Southern California Fires The fall of 2003 marked the most destructive wildfire season in California history. In a ten day period, 12 separate fires raged across Southern California in Los Angeles, Riverside, San Bernardino, San Diego and Ventura counties. The massive "Cedar" fire in San Diego County alone consumed of 2,800 homes and burned over a quarter of a million acres. Table 2.5.1 October 2003 Firestorm Statistics County Fire Name Date Began Acres Burned Homes Lost Homes Damaged Lives Lost Riverside Pass 10/21/03 2,397 3 7 0 Los Angeles Padua 10/21/03 10,446 59 0 0 San Bernardino Grand Prix 10/21103 69,894 136 71 0 San Diego Roblar2 10/21/03 8,592 0 0 0 Ventura Piru 10/23/03 63,991 8 0 0 Los Angeles Verdale 10/24/03 8,650 1 0 0 Ventura Simi 10/25/03 108,204 300 11 0 San Diego Cedar 10/25/03 273,246 2,820 63 14 San Bernardino Old 10/25/03 91,281 1,003 7 6 San Diego Otay / Mine 10/26/03 46,000 6 11 0 Riverside Mountain 10/26/03 10,000 61 0 0 San Diego Paradise 10/26/03 56,700 415 15 2 Total Losses 749,401 4,812 185 22 Source: http : / /www.fire.ca.gov /phplfire_er_ content /downloads /2003LargeF!res.pdf HISTORIC FIRES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA Large fires have been part of the Southern California landscape for millennia. "Written documents reveal that during the 19th century human settlement of southern California altered the fire regime of coastal California by increasing the fire frequency. This was an era of very limited fire suppression, and yet like today, large crown fires covering tens of thousands of acres were not uncommon. One of the largest fires in Los Angeles County (60,000 acres) occurred in 1878, and the largest fire in Orange County's history, in 1889, was over half a million acres." 4e 46 http: /hvwxv. fire .ca.gov /php/2003tireseasonstats v2.asp It http: /hvm�v. fire. ca. gov /php /fire_er_ content /dovuiloads /2003LargeFires.pdf http: //NNm�v.usgs.gov /public /press /public_ affairs /press_rcicascs /pr 1805m.hhnl 114 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Table 2.5.2 Large Historic Fires in California 1961 -2003 20 Largest California Wildland Fires (Structures Destroyed) (Southern California fires are shown in bold) Source: http: / /www. fire. ca. gov /php /fire_er_ content /downloads /2003LargeFires.pdf "Structures" is meant to include all loss - homes and outbuildings, etc. During the 2002 fire season, more than 6.9 million acres of public and private lands burned in the US, resulting in loss of property, damage to resources and disruption of community services. 49 Taxpayers spent more than $1.6 billion5o to combat more than 88,400 fires nationwide. Many of these fires burned in wildland /urban interface areas and exceeded the fire suppression capabilities of those areas. hitpl /N �v.nife .gov /statsAvildlandfirestats.litml hfp: / /researeli.yale.edu /gisf/assets /pdf /ppf /wi Idfiire_ report. pd f 115 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Fire Name Date County Acres Structures Deaths 1 Tunnel October 1991 Alameda 1,600 2,900 25 2 Cedar October 2003 San Diego 273,246 2,820 14 3 Old October 2003 San Bernardino 91,281 1,003 6 4 Jones October 1999 Shasta 26,200 954 1 5 Paint June 1990 Santa Barbara 4,900 641 1 6 Fountain August 1992 Shasta 63,960 636 0 7 City of Berkeley September 1923 Alameda 130 584 0 8 Be[ Air November 1961 Los Angeles 6,090 484 0 9 Laguna Fire October 1993 Orange 14,437 441 0 10 Paradise October 2003 San Diego 56,700 415 2 11 Laguna September 1970 San Diego 175,425 382 5 12 Panorama November 1980 San Bernardino 23,600 325 4 13 Topanga November 1993 Los Angeles 18,000 323 3 14 49er September 1988 Nevada 33,700 312 0 15 Simi October 2003 Ventura 108,204 300 0 16 Sycamore July 1977 Santa Barbara 805 234 0 17 Canyon September 1999 Shasta 2,580 230 0 18 Kerman October 1978 Los Angeles 25,385 224 0 19 Kinneloa October 1993 Los Angeles 5,485 196 1 19 Grand Prix October 2003 San Bernardino 59,448 196 0 20 Old Gulch August 1992 Calaveras 17,386 170 0 Source: http: / /www. fire. ca. gov /php /fire_er_ content /downloads /2003LargeFires.pdf "Structures" is meant to include all loss - homes and outbuildings, etc. During the 2002 fire season, more than 6.9 million acres of public and private lands burned in the US, resulting in loss of property, damage to resources and disruption of community services. 49 Taxpayers spent more than $1.6 billion5o to combat more than 88,400 fires nationwide. Many of these fires burned in wildland /urban interface areas and exceeded the fire suppression capabilities of those areas. hitpl /N �v.nife .gov /statsAvildlandfirestats.litml hfp: / /researeli.yale.edu /gisf/assets /pdf /ppf /wi Idfiire_ report. pd f 115 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 WILDFIRE CHARACTERISTICS There are three categories of interface firers' The classic wildland /urban interface exists where well - defined urban and suburban development presses up against open expanses of wildland areas; the mixed wildland /urban interface is characterized by isolated homes, subdivisions and small communities situated predominantly in wildland settings; and the occluded wildland /urban interface exists where islands of wildland vegetation occur inside a largely urbanized area. Certain conditions must be present for significant interface fires to occur. The most common conditions include: hot, dry and windy weather; the inability of fire protection forces to contain or suppress the fire; the occurrence of multiple fires that overwhelm committed resources; and a large fuel load (dense vegetation). Once a fire has started, several conditions influence its behavior, including fuel topography, weather, drought and development. Southern California has two distinct areas of risk for wildland fire. The foothills and lower mountain areas are most often covered with scrub brush or chaparral. The higher elevations of mountains also have heavily forested terrain. The lower elevations covered with chaparral create one type of exposure. Past fire suppression is not to blame for causing large shrubland wildfires, nor has it proven effective in halting them. "" said Dr. Jon Keeley, a USGS fire researcher who studies both southern California shrublands and Sierra Nevada forests. " "Under Santa Ana conditions, fires carry through all chaparral regardless of age class. Therefore, prescribed burning programs over large areas to remove old stands and maintain youngs growth as bands of firebreaks resistant to ignition are futile at stopping these wildfires. "" z The higher elevations of Southern California's mountains are typically heavily forested. The magnitude of the 2003 fires is the result of three primary factors: (1) severe drought, accompanied by a series of storms that produce thousands of lightning strikes and windy conditions; (2) an infestation of bark beetles that has killed thousands of mature trees; and (3) the effects of wildfire suppression over the past century that has led to buildup of brush and small diameter trees in the forests. "When Lewis and Clark explored the Northwest, the forests were relatively open, with 20 to 25 mature trees per acre. Periodically, lightning would start fires that would clear out underbrush and small trees, renewing the forests. Today's forests are completely different, with as many as 400 trees crowded onto each acre, along with thick undergrowth. This density of growth makes forests susceptible to disease, drought and severe wildfires. Instead of restoring forests, these wildfires destroy them and it can take decades to recover. This radical change in our forests is the result of nearly a century of well- intentioned but misguided management." 13 The Interface One challenge Southern California faces regarding the wildfire hazard is from the increasing number of houses being built on the urban /wildland interface. Every year the growing population has expanded further and further into the hills and mountains, including forest lands. The increased "interface" between urban /suburban areas and the open spaces created by this expansion has produced a significant increase in threats to life and property from fires and has pushed existing fire protection systems beyond original or current design and capability. Property owners in the interface are not aware of the problems and threats they face. Therefore, many owners have done very little to manage or offset fire hazards or risks on their own property. Furthermore, human activities increase the incidence of fire ignition and potential damage. Planning for Natural Hazards: The Oregon Technical Resource Guide, (July 2000) Department of Land Conservation and Development hltp : / /wNvw.usgs.gov /public/press/ public_ affairs /press_ releases /pr180m.htnd Overgrown Forests Require Preventive Measures, By Gale A. Norton (Secretary of the Interior), USA Today Editorial, August 21, 2002 116 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Fuel Fuel is the material that feeds a fire and is a key factor in wildfire behavior. Fuel is classified by volume and by type. Volume is described in terms of "fuel loading," or the amount of available vegetative fuel. The type of fuel also influences wildfire. Chaparral is a primary fuel of Southern California wildfires. Chaparral habitat ranges in elevation from near sea level to over 5,000' in Southern California. Chaparral communities experience long dry summers and receive most of their annual precipitation from.winter rains. Although chaparral is often considered as a single species, there are two distinct types; hard chaparral and soft chaparral. Within these two types are dozens of different plants, each with its own particular characteristics. "Fire has been important in the life cycle of chaparral communities for over 2 million years, however, the true nature of the "fire cycle" has been subject to interpretation. In a period of 750 years, it generally thought that fire occurs once every 65 years in coastal drainages and once every 30 to 35 years inland." 54 "The vegetation of chaparral communities has evolved to a point it requires fire to spawn regeneration. Many species invite fire through the production of plant materials with large surface -to- volume ratios, volatile oils and through periodic die -back of vegetation. These species have further adapted to possess special reproductive mechanisms following fire. Several species produce vast quantities of seeds which lie dormant until fire triggers germination. The parent plant which produces these seeds defends itself from fire by a thick layer of bark which allows enough of the plant to survive so that the plant can crown sprout following the blaze. In general, chaparral community plants have adapted to fire through the following methods; a) fire induced flowering; b) bud production and sprouting subsequent to fire; c) in -soil seed storage and fire stimulated germination; and d) on plant seed storage and fire stimulated dispersal.„55 An important element in understanding the danger of wildfire is the availability of diverse fuels in the landscape, such as natural vegetation, manmade structures and combustible materials. A house surrounded by brushy growth rather than cleared space allows for greater continuity of fuel and increases the fire's ability to spread. After decades of fire suppression "dog- hair" thickets have accumulated, which enable high intensity fires to flare and spread rapidly. Topography Topography influences the movement of air, thereby directing a fire course. For example, if the percentage of uphill slope doubles, the rate of spread in wildfire will likely double. Gulches and canyons can funnel air and act as chimneys, which intensify fire behavior and cause the fire to spread faster. Solar heating of dry, south - facing slopes produces up slope drafts that can complicate fire behavior. Unfortunately, hillsides with hazardous topographic characteristics are also desirable residential areas in many communities. This underscores the need for wildfire hazard mitigation and increased education and outreach to homeowners living in interface areas. Weather Weather patterns combined with certain geographic locations can create a favorable climate for wildfire activity. Areas where annual precipitation is less than 30 inches per year are extremely fire susceptible.ss High -risk areas in Southern California share a hot, dry season in late summer and early fall when high temperatures and low humidity favor fire activity. The so- called "Santa Ana' winds, which are heated by compression as they flow down to Southern California from Utah create a particularly high risk, as they can rapidly spread what might otherwise be a small fire. http: / /www.coastal.ca.gov /fire /ucsbfire, hum I Ibid Planning for Natural Hazards: The Oregon''echnical Resource Guide, (July 2000), Deparnnent of Land Conservation and Development 117 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Drought Recent concerns about the effects of climate change, particularly drought, are contributing to concerns about wildfire vulnerability. The term drought is applied to a period in which an unusual scarcity of rain causes a serious hydrological imbalance. Unusually dry winters, or significantly less rainfall than normal, can lead to relatively drier conditions and leave reservoirs and water tables lower. Drought leads to problems with irrigation and may contribute to additional fires, or additional difficulties in fighting fires. Development Growth and development in scrubland and forested areas is increasing the number of human -made structures in Southern California interface areas. Wildfire has an effect on development, yet development can also influence wildfire. Owners often prefer homes that are private, have scenic views, are nestled in vegetation and use natural materials. A private setting may be far from public roads, or hidden behind a narrow, curving driveway. These conditions, however, make evacuation and firefighting difficult. The scenic views found along mountain ridges can also mean areas of dangerous topography. Natural vegetation contributes to scenic beauty, but it may also provide a ready trail of fuel leading a fire directly to the combustible fuels of the home itself. WILDFIRE HAZARD ASSESSMENT Wildfire Hazard Identification Wildfire hazard areas are commonly identified in regions of the wildland /urban interface. Ranges of the wildfire hazard are further determined by the ease of fire ignition due to natural or human conditions and the difficulty of fire suppression. The wildfire hazard is also magnified by several factors related to fire suppression /control such as the surrounding fuel load, weather, topography and property characteristics. Generally, hazard identification rating systems are based on weighted factors of fuels, weather and topography. Table 2.5.3 illustrates a rating system to identify wildfire hazard risk (with a score of 3 equaling the most danger and a score of 1 equaling the least danger.) Table 2.5.3 Sample Hazard Identification Rating System In order to determine the "base hazard factor" of specific wildfire hazard sites and interface regions, several factors must be taken into account. Categories used to assess the base hazard factor include: • Topographic location, characteristics and fuels; • Site /building construction and design; • Site /region fuel profile (landscaping); • Defensible space; • Accessibility; 118 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 i Indicator Rating -Category Roads and Signage Steep; narrow; poorly signed 3 One or two of the above 2 Meets all requirements 1 Water Supply None, except domestic 3 Hydrant, tank, or pool over 500 feet away 2 H drant, tank, or pool within 500 feet 1 Location of the Structure Top of steep slope with brush/ grass below 3 Mid-slope with clearance 2 Level with lawn, or watered groundcover 1 Exterior Construction Combustible roofing, open eaves, Combustible siding 3 One or two of the above 2 Non - combustible roof, boxed eaves, non - combustible sidin 1 In order to determine the "base hazard factor" of specific wildfire hazard sites and interface regions, several factors must be taken into account. Categories used to assess the base hazard factor include: • Topographic location, characteristics and fuels; • Site /building construction and design; • Site /region fuel profile (landscaping); • Defensible space; • Accessibility; 118 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 i • Fire protection response; and • Water availability. The use of Geographic Information System (GIS) technology in recent years has been a great asset to fire hazard assessment, allowing further integration of fuels, weather and topography data for such ends as fire behavior prediction, watershed evaluation, mitigation strategies and hazard mapping. Vulnerability and Risk Southern California residents are served by a variety of local fire departments as well as county, state and federal fire resources. Data that includes the location of interface areas in the county can be used to assess the population and total value of property at risk from wildfire and direct these fire agencies in fire prevention and response. Santa Monica does not have an urban interface with the surrounding mountains, reducing the risk of wildfire. Key factors included in assessing wildfire risk include ignition sources, building materials and design, community design, structural density, slope, vegetative fuel, fire occurrence and weather, as well as occurrences of drought. The National Wildland /Urban Fire Protection Program has developed the Wildland /Urban Fire Hazard Assessment Methodology tool for communities to assess their risk to wildfire. For more information on wildfire hazard assessment refer to http: / /www.Firewise.org. COMMUNITY WILDFIRE ISSUES What is Susceptible to Wildfire? Growth and Development in the Interface The hills and mountainous areas of Southern California are considered to be interface areas. The development of homes and other structures is encroaching onto the wildlands and is expanding the wildland /urban interface. The interface neighborhoods are characterized by a diverse mixture of varying housing structures, development patterns, ornamental and natural vegetation and natural fuels. In the event of a wildfire, vegetation, structures and other flammables can merge into unwieldy and unpredictable events. Factors important to the fighting of such fires include access, firebreaks, proximity of water sources, distance from a fire station and available firefighting personnel and equipment. Reviewing past wildland /urban interface fires shows that many structures are destroyed or damaged for one or more of the following reasons: • Combustible roofing material; • Wood construction; • Structures with no defensible space; • Fire department with poor access to structures; • Subdivisions located in heavy natural fuel types; • Structures located on steep slopes covered with flammable vegetation; • Limited water supply; and • Winds over 30 miles per hour. Road Access Road access is a major issue for all emergency service providers. As development encroaches into the rural areas of the county, the number of houses without adequate turn - around space is increasing. In many areas, there is not adequate space for emergency vehicle turnarounds in single - family residential neighborhoods, causing emergency workers to have difficulty doing their jobs because they cannot access houses. As fire trucks are large, firefighters are challenged by narrow roads and limited access. When there is inadequate turn around space, the fire fighters can only work to remove the occupants, but cannot safely remain to save the threatened structures. 119 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 Water Supply Fire fighters in remote and rural areas are faced by limited water supply and lack of hydrant taps. Rural areas are characteristically outfitted with small diameter pipe water systems, inadequate for providing sustained firefighting flows. Interface Fire Education Programs and Enforcement Fire protection in urban /wildland interface areas may rely heavily more on the landowner's personal initiative to take measures to protect his or her own property. Therefore, public education and awareness may play a greater role in interface areas. In those areas with strict fire codes, property owners who are resist maintaining the minimum brush clearances may be cited for failure to clear brush. The Need for Mitigation Programs Continued development into the interface areas will have growing impacts on the wildland /urban interface. Periodically, the historical losses from wildfires in Southern California have been catastrophic, with deadly and expensive fires going back decades. The continued growth and development increases the public need for natural hazards mitigation planning in Southern California. Wildfire Mitigation Activities Existing mitigation activities include current mitigation programs and activities that are being implemented by county, regional, state, or federal agencies or organizations. Local Programs In Southern California there are dozens of independent local fire departments as well as large county wide consolidated fire districts. Although each district or department is responsible for fire related issues in specific geographic areas, they work together to keep Southern California residents safe from fire. Although fire agencies work together to fight urban /wildland interface fires, each separate agency may have a somewhat different set of codes to enforce for mitigation activities. The fire departments and districts provide essential public services in the communities they serve and their duties far surpass extinguishing fires. Most of the districts and departments provide other services to their jurisdictions, including Emergency Medical Services who can begin treatment and stabilize sick and injured patients in emergency situations. All of the fire service providers in the county are dedicated to fire prevention and use their resources to educate the public to reduce the threat of the fire hazard, especially in the wildland /urban interface. Fire prevention professionals throughout the county have taken the lead in providing many useful and educational services to Southern California residents, such as: • Home fire safety inspection; • Assistance developing home fire escape plans; • Business Inspections; • Citizen Emergency Response Team (CERT) training; • Fire cause determination; • Counseling for juvenile fire - setters; • Teaching fire prevention in schools; • Coordinating educational programs with other agencies, hospitals and schools; and • Answering citizens' questions regarding fire hazards. The Threat of Urban Conflagration Although communities without an urban /wildland interface are much less likely to experience a catastrophic fire, in Southern California there is a scenario where any community might be exposed to an urban conflagration similar to the fires that occurred following the 1906 San Francisco earthquake. "Large fires following an earthquake in an urban region are relatively rare phenomena, but have occasionally been of catastrophic proportions. The two largest peace -time 120 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 urban fires in history, 1906 San Francisco and 1923 Tokyo, were both caused by earthquakes. The fact that fire following earthquake has been little researched or considered in the United States is particularly surprising when one realizes that the conflagration in San Francisco after the 1906 earthquake was the single largest urban fire, and the single largest earthquake loss, in U.S. history. The loss over three days of more than 28,000 buildings within an area of 12 km2 was staggering: $250 million in 1906 dollars, or about $5 billion at today's prices. The 1989 Loma Prieta Earthquake, the 1991 Oakland hills fire, and Japan's recent Hokkaido Nansei -oki Earthquake all demonstrate the current, real possibility of a large fire, such as a fire following an earthquake, developing into a conflagration. In the United States, all the elements that would hamper fire - fighting capabilities are present: density of wooden structures, limited personnel and equipment to address multiple fires, debris blocking the access of fire - fighting equipment, and a limited water supply." 57 This in Southern California, this scenario highlights the need for fire mitigation activity in all sectors of the region, urban /wildland interface or not. Federal Programs The role of the federal land managing agencies in the wildland /urban interface is reducing fuel hazards on the lands they administer; cooperating in prevention and education programs; providing technical and financial assistance; and developing agreements, partnerships and relationships with property owners, local protection agencies, states and other stakeholders in wildland /urban interface areas. These relationships focus on activities before a fire occurs, which render structures and communities safer and better able to survive a fire occurrence. Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) Programs FEMA is directly responsible for providing fire suppression assistance grants and, in certain cases, major disaster assistance and hazard mitigation grants in response to fires. The role of FEMA in the wildland /urban interface is to encourage comprehensive disaster preparedness plans and programs, increase the capability of state and local governments and provide for a greater understanding of FEMA programs at the federal, state and local levels.5e Fire Suppression Assistance Grants Fire Suppression Assistance Grants may be provided to a state with an approved hazard mitigation plan for the suppression of a forest or grassland fire that threatens to become a major disaster on public or private lands. These grants are provided to protect life and improved property and encourage the development and implementation of viable multi- hazard mitigation measures and provide training to clarify FEMA's programs. The grant may include funds for equipment, supplies and personnel. A Fire Suppression Assistance Grant is the form of assistance most often provided by FEMA to a state for a fire, The grants are cost - shared with states. FEMA's US Fire Administration (USFA) provides public education materials addressing wildland /urban interface issues and the USFA's National Fire Academy provides training programs. National Wildland /Urban Interface Fire Protection Program Federal agencies can use the National Wildland /Urban Interface Fire Protection Program to focus on wildland /urban interface fire protection issues and actions. The Western Governors' Association (WGA) can act as a catalyst to involve state agencies, as well as local and private stakeholders, with the http: /hvww.ego.com /publications /revf93 /firefollhtm 58 Source: National Interagency Fire Center, Boise ID and California Division of Forestry, Riverside Fire lab. I 121 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 objective of developing an implementation plan to achieve a uniform, integrated national approach to hazard and risk assessment and fire prevention and protection in the wildland /urban interface. The program helps states develop viable and comprehensive wildland fire mitigation plans and performance - based partnerships. U.S. Forest Service The U. S. Forest Service (USFS) is involved in a fuel - loading program implemented to assess fuels and reduce hazardous buildup on forest lands. The USFS is a cooperating agency and, while it has little to no jurisdiction in the lower valleys, it has an interest in preventing fires in the interface, as fires often burn up the hills and into the higher elevation US forest lands. Other Mitigation Programs and Activities Some areas of the country are facing wildland /urban issues collaboratively. These are model programs that include local solutions. Summit County, Colorado, has developed a hazard and risk assessment process that mitigates hazards through zoning requirements. In California, the Los Angeles County Fire Department has retrofitted more than 100 fire engines with fire retardant foam capability and Orange County is evaluating a pilot insurance grading and rating schedule specific to the wildland /urban interface All are examples successful programs that demonstrate the value of pre- suppression and prevention efforts when combined with property owner support to mitigate hazards within the wildland /urban interface. Firewise Firewise is a program developed within the National Wildland/ Urban Interface Fire Protection Program and it is the primary federal program addressing interface fire. It is administered through the National Wildfire Coordinating Group whose extensive list of participants includes a wide range of federal agencies. The program is intended to empower planners and decision makers at the local level. Through conferences and information dissemination, Firewise increases support for interface wildfire mitigation by educating professionals and the general public about hazard evaluation and policy implementation techniques. Firewise offers online wildfire protection information and checklists, as well as listings of other publications, videos and conferences. The interactive home page allows users to ask fire protection experts questions and to register for new information as it becomes available. FireFree Program FireFree is a unique private /public program for interface wildfire mitigation involving partnerships between an insurance company and local government agencies. It is an example of an effective non - regulatory approach to hazard mitigation. Originating in Bend, Oregon, the program was developed in response to the city's "Skeleton Fire" of 1996, which burned over 17,000 acres and damaged or destroyed 30 homes and structures. Bend sought to create a new kind of public education initiative that emphasized local involvement. SAFECO Insurance Corporation was a willing collaborator in this effort. Bend's pilot program included: 1. A short video production featuring local citizens as actors, made available at local video stores, libraries and fire stations; 2. Two city -wide yard debris removal events; 3. A 3D- minute program on a model FireFree home, aired on a local cable television station; and 4. Distribution of brochures, featuring a property owner evaluation checklist and a listing of fire - resistant indigenous plants. 122 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 WILDFIRE, RESOURCE DIRECTORY Local Resources Santa Monica Fire Department 333 Olympic Drive, 2ntl Floor Santa Monica, CA 90401 Telephone: 310.458-8651 http://santamonicafire.org/index.htm County Resources Los Angeles County Fire Department 1320 N. Eastern Ave. Los Angeles, CA. 90063 Telephone: 323.881.2411 http://www.lacofd.org/default,htm State Resources California Division of Forestry & Fire Protection 1416 9th Street PO Box 944246 Sacramento California 94244 -2460 (916)653 -5123 http://www.fire.ca.gov/php/index.php Office of the State Fire Marshal (OSFM) 1131 "S" Street Sacramento, CA 95814 PO Box 944246 Sacramento, CA 94244 -2460 Tel. (916) 445 -8200 Fax. (916) 445-8509 Federal Resources and Programs Federal Wildland Fire Policy, Wildland /Urban Interface Protection This is a report describing federal policy and interface fire. Areas of needed improvement are identified and addressed through recommended goals and actions. http://www.fs.fed.us/land/wdfire7c.htm National Fire Protection Association (NFPA) This is the principal federal agency involved in the National Wildland /Urban Interface Fire Protection Initiative. NFPA has information on the Initiatives programs and documents. Public Fire Protection Division 1 Battery March Park. P.O. Box 9101 Quincy, MA 02269 -9101 Phone: (617) 770-3000 National Interagency Fire Center (NIFC) The NIFC in Boise, Idaho is the nation's support center for wildland firefighting. Seven federal agencies work together to coordinate and support wildland fire and disaster operations. These agencies include the Bureau of Indian Affairs, Bureau of Land Management, Forest Service, Fish and Wildlife Service, National Park Service, National Weather Service and Office of Aircraft National Interagency Fire Center 3833 S. Development Ave. i 123 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Boise, Idaho 83705 208 - 387 -5512 http://www.nifc,gov/ United States Fire Administration (USFA) of the Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) As an entity of the Federal Emergency Management Agency, the mission of the USFA is to reduce life and economic losses due to fire and related emergencies through leadership, advocacy, coordination and support. USFA, Planning Branch, Mitigation Directorate 16825 S. Seton Ave. Emmitsburg, MD 21727 (301) 447 -1000 http: / /www.fema.gov /hazards /fires /wildfires.shtm -Wildfire Mitigation http : / /www.usfa.fema.gov /index.htm - U.S. Fire Administration Additional Resources Firewise - The National Wildland /Urban Interface Fire program Firewise maintains a Website designed for people who live in wildfire prone areas, but it also can be of use to local planners and decision makers. The site offers online wildfire protection ,information and checklists, as well as listings of other publications, videos and conferences. Firewise 1 Battery March Park. P.O. Box 9101 Quincy, MA 02269 -9101 Phone: (617) 770 -3000 http://www.firewise.org/ Publications National Fire Protection Association Standard 299: Protection of Life and Property from Wildfire, National Wildland /Urban Interface Fire Protection Program, (1991), National Fire Protection Association, Washington, D. This document, developed by the NFPA Forest and Rural Fire Protection Committee, provides criteria for fire agencies, land use planners, architects, developers and local governments to use in the development of areas that may be threatened by wildfire. To obtain this resource: National Fire Protection Association Publications (800) 344 -3555 http: / /www.nfpa.org or http: / /www.firewise.org An International Collection of Wildland- Urban Interface Resource Materials (Information Report NOR- 344). Hirsch, K., Pinedo, M., & Greenlee, J. (1996). Edmonton, Alberta: Canadian Forest Service. This is a comprehensive bibliography of interface wildfire materials. Over 2,000 resources are included, grouped under the categories of general and technical reports, newspaper articles and public education materials. The citation format allows the reader to obtain most items through a library or directly from the publisher. The bibliography is available in hard copy or diskette at no cast. It is also available in downloadable PDF form. Canadian Forest Service, Northern Forestry Centre, I -Zone Series Phone: (780) 435 -7210 http: / /www. pref ire. ucfpl. ucop.edu /uwibib. htm Wildland /Urban Interface Fire Hazard Assessment Methodology. National Wildland /Urban Interface Fire Protection Program, (1998). NFPA, Washington, D.C. Firewise (NFPA Public Fire Protection Division) 124 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Phone: (617) 984 -7486 http://www.firewise.org Fire Protection in the Wildland /Urban Interface: Everyone's Responsibility. National Wild land /Urban Interface Fire Protection Program, (1998). Washington, D. Firewise (NFPA Public Fire Protection Division) Phone: (617) 984 -7486 http: / /www.firewise, org Wildfire Endnotes 1. http: / /www. fire. ca. gov /php /2003fi reseasonstats_v2.asp 2. http: / /www.fire.ca.gov /php /fire_er_ content /downloads /2003LargeFires.pdf 3. http: / /www.usgs.gov /public /press /public_ affairs / press_releases/prl805m.html 4. http: / /www.nifc. gov /stats /Wildlandfirestats.html 5. http: / /research.yale.edu /gisf/ assets /pdf /ppf /wildfire_report.pdf 6. Planning for Natural Hazards: The Oregon Technical Resource Guide, (July 2000) Department of Land Conservation and Development 7. http: / /www.usgs.gov /public /press /public_ affairs /press_releases /prl805m.html 8. Overgrown Forests Require Preventive Measures, By Gale A. Norton (Secretary of the Interior), USA Today Editorial, August 21, 2002 9. http: / /www. coastal .ca.gov /fire /ucsbfire.htm] 10. Ibid 11. Planning for Natural Hazards: The Oregon Technical Resource Guide, (July 2000), Department of Land Conservation and Development 12. http: / /www.ege.com/ publications /revf93 /firefoll.htm 13. Source: National Interagency Fire Center, Boise ID and California Division of Forestry, Riverside Fire Lab. 125 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Table of Contents Why Are Windstorms a Threat to Southern California? .... ............................... ............................127 WindstormCharacteristics ............................................................................ ............................... 127 Local History of Windstorm Events .................................. ............................... ............................129 Windstorm Hazard Identification ....................................... ............................... ............................130 What Is Susceptible to Windstorm? .............................................................. ............................... 131 Existing Windstorm Mitigation Activities ............................ ............................... ............................133 Windstorm Resource Directory ......................................... ............................... ............................134 1 i 126 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 WHY ARE SEVERE WINDSTORMS A THREAT TO THE CITY OF SANTA MONICO,, Severe wind storms pose a significant risk to life and property in the region by creating conditions that disrupt essential systems such as public utilities, telecommunications, and transportation routes. High winds can and do occasionally cause tornado -like damage to local homes and businesses. Severe windstorms can present a very destabilizing effect on the dry brush that covers local hillsides and urban wildland interface areas. High winds can have destructive impacts, especially to trees, power lines, and utility services. Map 2.6.1 Wind patterns in Southern California (NASA's "Observatorium ") WINDSTORM CHARACTERISTICS IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA j Santa Ana Winds and Tornado -Like Wind Activity Based on local history, most incidents of high wind in the City of Santa Monica are the result of the Santa Ana wind conditions. While high impact wind incidents are not frequent in the area, significant Santa Ana Wind events and sporadic tornado activity have been known to negatively impact the local community. What are Santa Ana Winds? "Santa Ana winds are generally defined as warm, dry winds that blow from the east or northeast (offshore). These winds occur below the passes and canyons of the coastal ranges of Southern California and in the Los Angeles basin. Santa Ana winds often blow with exceptional speed in the Santa Ana Canyon (the canyon from which it derives its name). Forecasters at the National Weather Service offices in Oxnard and San Diego usually place speed minimums on these winds and reserve the use of "Santa Ana" for winds greater than 25 knots. "59 These winds accelerate to speeds of 35 knots as they move through canyons and passes, with gusts to 50 or even 60 knots. "The complex topography of Southern California combined with various atmospheric conditions create numerous scenarios that may cause widespread or isolated Santa Ana events. Commonly, Santa Ana winds develop when a region of high pressure builds over the Great Basin (the high plateau east of the Sierra mountains and west of the Rocky mountains including most of Nevada and Utah). Clockwise circulation around the center of this high pressure area forces air downslope from the high plateau. The air warms as it descends toward the California coast at the rate of 5 degrees F per 1000 feet due to compressional heating. Thus, compressional heating provides the primary source of warming. The air is dry since it originated in the desert, and it dries out even more as it is heated.i60 These regional winds typically occur from October to March, and, according to most accounts are named either for the Santa Ana River Valley where they originate or for the Santa Ana Canyon, southeast of Los Angeles, where they pick up speed. 59 htto: / /nimbo.wrh. noaa.00v /Sa nd ieao /snawind. html 60 Ibid 127 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 What are Tornados? Tornadoes are spawned when there is warm, moist air near the ground, cool air aloft, and winds that speed up and change direction. An obstruction, such as a house, in the path of the wind causes it to change direction. This change increases pressure on parts of the house, and the combination of increased pressures and fluctuating wind speeds creates stresses that frequently cause structural failures. In order to measure the intensity and wind strength of a tornado, Dr. T. Theodore Fujita developed the Fujita Tornado Damage Scale. This scale compares the estimated wind velocity with the corresponding amount of suspected damage. The scale measures six classifications of tornadoes with increasing magnitude from an "FO" tornado to a 76 +" tornado. Table 2.6.1 Fujita Tornado Damage Scale Source: htto: // weather .latimes.com /tornadoFAQ.asp Microbursts Unlike tornados, microbursts, are strong, damaging winds which strike the ground and often give the impression a tornado has struck. They frequently occur during intense thunderstorms. The origin of a microburst is downward moving air from a thunderstorm's core. But unlike a tornado, they affect only a rather small area. University of Chicago storm researcher Dr Ted Fujita first coined the term "downburst" to describe strong, 128 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 Wind Scale Estimate Typical Damage (mph) FO < 73 Light damage. Some damage to chimneys and TV antennas; breaks twigs off trees; pushes over shallow- rooted trees. Moderate damage. Peels surface off roofs; windows broken; light trailer F1 73 -112 houses pushed or overturned; some trees uprooted or snapped; moving automobiles pushed off the road. 74 mph is the beginning of hurricane wind speed. Considerable damage. Roofs torn off frame houses leaving strong upright F2 113 -157 walls; weak buildings in rural areas demolished; trailer houses destroyed; large trees snapped or uprooted; railroad boxcars pushed over; light object missiles generated; cars blown off highway. Severe damage. Roofs and some walls torn off frame houses; some rural F3 158 -206 buildings completely demolished; trains overturned; steel- framed hangar - warehouse -type structures torn; cars lifted off the ground; most trees in a forest uprooted snapped, or leveled. Devastating damage. Whole frame houses leveled, leaving piles of debris; F4 207 -260 steel structures badly damaged; trees debarked by small flying debris; cars and trains thrown some distances or rolled considerable distances; large missiles generated. Incredible damage. Whole frame houses tossed off foundations; steel - F5 261 -318 reinforced concrete structures badly damaged; automobile -sized missiles generated; trees debarked; incredible phenomena can occur. Inconceivable damage. Should a tornado with the maximum wind speed in F6 -F12 319 to sonic excess of F5 occur, the extent and types of damage may not be conceived. A number of missiles such as iceboxes, water heaters, storage tanks, automobiles, etc. will create serious secondary damage on structures. Source: htto: // weather .latimes.com /tornadoFAQ.asp Microbursts Unlike tornados, microbursts, are strong, damaging winds which strike the ground and often give the impression a tornado has struck. They frequently occur during intense thunderstorms. The origin of a microburst is downward moving air from a thunderstorm's core. But unlike a tornado, they affect only a rather small area. University of Chicago storm researcher Dr Ted Fujita first coined the term "downburst" to describe strong, 128 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 downdraft winds flowing out of a thunderstorm cell that he believed were responsible for the crash of Eastern Airlines Flight 66 in June of 1975.6t A downburst is a straight- direction surface wind in excess of 39 mph caused by a small - scale, strong downdraft from the base of convective thundershowers and thunderstorms. In later investigations into the phenomena he defined two sub - categories of downbursts: the larger macrobursts and small microbursts.6z Macrobursts are downbursts with winds up to 117 mph which spread across a path greater than 2.5 miles wide at the surface and which last from 5 to 30 minutes. The microburst, on the other hand is confined to an even smaller area, less than 2.5 miles in diameter from the initial point of downdraft impact. An intense microburst can result in damaging winds near 270 km /hr (170 mph) and often last for less than five minutes .63 " Downbursts of all sizes descend from the upper regions of severe thunderstorms when the air accelerates downward through either exceptionally strong evaporative cooling or by very heavy rain which drags dry air down with it. When the rapidly descending air strikes the ground, it spreads outward in all directions, like a fast - running faucet stream hitting the sink bottom. When the microburst wind hits an object on the ground such as a house, garage or tree, it can flatten the buildings and strip limbs and branches from the tree. After striking the ground, the powerful outward running gust can wreak further havoc along its path. Damage associated with a microburst is often mistaken for the work of a tornado, particularly directly under the microburst. However, damage patterns away from the impact area are characteristic of straight -line winds rather than the twisted pattern of tornado damage. "64 Tornados, like those that occur every year in the Midwest and Southeast parts of the United States, are a rare phenomenon in most of California, with most tornado -like activity coming from micro - bursts. LOCAL HISTORY OF WINDSTORM EVENTS Tornados The south coastal region of California, including the Los Angeles Basin, has the greatest incidence of tornadoes in the state. In the period from 1950 to 1992, the basin had 99 confirmed tornadoes. According to Blier and Battan (1994), this area has a tornadic incidence similar to that of the State of Oklahoma. However, these researchers go on to point out that the size, severity and duration of California tornadoes is less than those common to the plains states, and the tornado count in the Golden State may be inflated due to inaccuracies within the database. Nevertheless, the fact that tornadoes occur with great frequency in a very densely populated urban area makes the occurrence of tornadoes in the Los Angeles Basin particularly relevant. Unlike their Plains counterparts, southern California tornadoes occur mainly in the winter. Of the 99 tornadoes that were reported in the Los Angeles Basin between 1950 and 1992, the vast majority (83) occurred in the months November through March. March had the highest number of incidents (22). The fact that few tornadoes occur in the Los Angeles Basin during the warm season is primarily due to the stabilizing effect of the marine layer, and the lack of dynamic forcing during the warmer months. Roughly a quarter of the tornadoes listed by Blier and Battan originated as waterspouts over either Santa Monica 63Ibid 64Ibid 129 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Bay or San Pedro Channel. There were many more waterspouts that never made landfall; these were not included in the tornado count. The cause of many, if not most, of the Los Angeles Basin tornadoes seems to be linked to the terrain layout of the basin. Hales specifically mentioned the natural curvature of the shoreline and the location of the coastal mountains. Due to frictional and barrier flow effects, a convergent cyclonic wind pattern is established in the vicinity where most L.A. tornadoes occur. Blier and Batten discussed several features that require further investigation, including convergence to the lee of the Palos Verdes Peninsula and Santa Catalina Island. In the 1997 -98 El Nino episode, the Pacific storm track was located over southern California for much of the winter season. This produced a number of days in which Hale's criteria were approximated over the Los Angeles Basin and adjacent waters. In that season, there were over twenty days in which either waterspouts, funnel clouds or tornadoes were reported— including 30 separate sightings. Two tornadoes touched down within the City of Long Beach. Thunderstorms A mass of warm, moist subtropical air occasionally overlies the Los Angeles Basin during the mid to late summer. The subtropical airmass originates in Mexico, then moves northwest into Arizona usually around the first week in July. The humid, sultry air, with its characteristic high dewpoints, frequently pulses into southern California deserts and occasionally extends into the coastal plain. During these periods, thunderstorms form mostly over the mountains of southern California in the afternoons, then occasionally meander over the coastal lowlands during evening and nighttime hours. The mean number of days per year on which thunderstorms occur (i.e. days on which thunder is heard, regardless of precipitation) is 4.1 in the downtown Los Angeles area. Because they are an infrequent visitor to the heavily populated southern California coast, thunderstorms are very notable when they do occur. Even when they produce only light precipitation, they can be a source of serious inconvenience by wetting an area that had been dry for weeks, or even months. Also, they may cause shifting surface winds with local gusts to 50 miles per hour or more. This combination, more or less innocuous in other parts of the United States, is actually dangerous in Los Angeles. The inevitable result of even small summer thunderstorms is a rash of highway accidents, freeway traffic jams and local power outages. During one afternoon in the spring of 1999 when scattered thunderstorms occurred across the Los Angeles Basin, a cluster of traffic accidents was reported, including one 70 -car pileup on Interstate 10. WINDSTORM HAZARD ASSESSMENT Hazard Identification A windstorm event in the region can range from short term microburst activity lasting only minutes to a long duration Santa Ana wind condition that can last for several days as in the case of the January 2003 Santa Ana wind event. Windstorms in the City of Santa Monica area can cause extensive damage including heavy tree stands, exposed coastal properties, road and highway infrastructure, and critical utility facilities. Heavy tourist traffic on the State and Local beach property is at great risk during windstorm activity. The map shows clearly the direction of the Santa Ana winds as they travel from the stable, high - pressure weather system called the Great Basin High through the canyons and towards the low- pressure system off the Pacific. Clearly the area of the City of Santa Monica is in the direct path of the ocean -bound Santa Ana winds. We can deduce the common windstorm impact areas including impacts on life, property, utilities, infrastructure and transportation. Additionally, if a windstorm disrupts power to local residential i 130 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9!2014 communities, the American Red Cross and City resources might be called upon for care and shelter duties. Displacing residents and utilizing City resources for shelter staffing and disaster cleanup can cause an economic hardship on the community. COMMUNITY WINDSTORM ISSUES What is Susceptible to Windstorms? Life and Property Based on the history of the region, windstorm events can be expected, perhaps annually, across widespread areas of the region which can be adversely impacted during a windstorm event. This can result in the involvement of City of Santa Monica emergency response personnel during a wide - ranging windstorm or microburst tornadic activity. Both residential and commercial structures with weak reinforcement are susceptible to damage. Wind pre=. structure, pushing walls, doors, and windows inward. Conversely, passing currents can create lift suction forces that pull building components and surfaces outward. With extreme wind forces, the roof or entire building can fail causing considerable damage. Debris carried along by extreme winds can directly contribute to loss of life and indirectly to the failure of protective building envelopes, siding, or walls. When severe windstorms strike a community, downed trees, power lines, and damaged property can be major hindrances to emergency response and disaster recovery. The Beaufort Scale below, coined and developed by Sir Francis Beaufort in 1805, illustrates the effect that varying wind speed can have on sea swells and structures: Table 2.6.2 BEAUFORT SCALE Beaufort Force Force Speed (mph) Wind Description - State of Sea - Effects on Land 0 Less 1 Calm - Mirror -like - Smoke rises vertically 1 1 -3 Light -Air Ripples look like scales; No crests of foam - Smoke drift shows direction of wind, but wind vanes do not 2 4 -7 Light Breeze - Small but pronounced wavelets; Crests do not break -Wind vanes move; Leaves rustle; You can feel wind on the face 3 8 -12 Gentle Breeze - Large Wavelets; Crests break; Glassy foam; A few whitecaps - Leaves and small twigs move constantly; Small, light flags are extended 4 13 -18 Moderate Breeze - Longer waves; Whitecaps - Wind lifts dust and loose paper; Small branches move 131 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 5 19 -24 Fresh Breeze - Moderate, long waves; Many whitecaps; Some spray - Small trees with leaves begin to move 6 25 -31 Strong Breeze - Some large waves; Crests of white foam; Spray - Large branches move; Telegraph wires whistle; Hard to hold umbrellas 7 32 -38 Near Gale - White foam from breaking waves blows in streaks with the wind - Whole trees move; Resistance felt walking into wind 8 39 -46 Gale - Waves high and moderately long; Crests break into spin drift, blowing foam in well marked streaks - Twigs and small branches break off trees; Difficult to walk 9 47 -54 Strong Gale - High waves with wave crests that tumble; Dense streaks of foam in wind; Poor visibility from spray - Slight structural damage Storm - Very high waves with long, curling crests; Sea surface appears white from 10 55 -63 blowing foam; Heavy tumbling of sea; Poor visibility - Trees broken or uprooted; Considerable structural damage Violent Storm - Waves high enough to hide small and medium sized ships; Sea 11 64 -73 covered with patches of white foam; Edges of wave crests blown into froth; Poor visibility - Seldom experienced inland; Considerable structural damage Hurricane - Sea white with spray. Foam and spray render visibility almost non - 12 >74 existent - Widespread damage. Very rarely experienced on land in Southern California. Source: http: / /www.compuweather.com /decoder - charts.html Utilities Historically, falling trees have been the major cause of power outages in the region. Windstorms such as strong microbursts and Santa Ana Wind conditions can cause flying debris and downed utility lines. For example, tree limbs breaking in winds of only 45 mph can be thrown over 75 feet. As such, overhead power lines can be damaged even in relatively minor windstorm events. Falling trees can bring electric power lines down to the pavement, creating the possibility of lethal electric shock. Rising population growth and new infrastructure in the region creates a higher probability for damage to occur from windstorms as more life and property are exposed to risk. Infrastructure Windstorms can damage buildings, power lines, and other property and infrastructure due to falling trees and branches. During wet winters, saturated soils cause trees to become less stable and more vulnerable to uprooting from high winds. Windstorms can result in collapsed or damaged buildings or blocked roads and bridges, damaged traffic signals, streetlights, and parks, among others. Roads blocked by fallen trees during a windstorm may have severe consequences to people who need access to emergency services. Emergency response operations can be complicated when roads are blocked or when power supplies are interrupted. Industry and commerce can suffer losses from interruptions in electric services and from extended road closures. They can also sustain direct losses to buildings, personnel, and other vital equipment. There are direct consequences to the local economy resulting from windstorms related to both physical damages and interrupted services. Increased Fire Threat Perhaps the greatest danger from windstorm activity in Southern California comes from the combination 132 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 of the Santa Ana winds with the major fires that occur every few years in the urban /wildland interface. With the Santa Ana winds driving the flames, the speed and reach of the flames is even greater than in times of calm wind conditions. The higher fire hazard raised by a Santa Ana wind condition requires that even more care and attention be paid to proper brush clearances on property in the wildland /urban interface areas. Transportation Windstorm activity can have an impact on local transportation in addition to the problems caused by downed trees and electrical wires blocking streets and highways. During periods of extremely strong r r e r i TALL ZONE - ___--- °- -- _'__,...-- - - - - .. --- -_.� 6D (20m) i hb' (4.5rn) MEDIl1MZCNE —° 40'(12m) LOW ZONE - D' (1 rJ nl)-rJ OR LE S i -- [ HOUSE FWble LNderg..d Inresr ,wN i wAIK Santa Ana winds, major highways can be temporarily closed to truck and recreational vehicle traffic. However, typically these disruptions are not long lasting, nor do they carry a severe long term economic impact on the region. EXISTING WINDSTORM MITIGATION ACTIVITIES As stated, one of the most common problems associated with windstorms is power outage. High winds commonly occur during winter storms, and can cause trees to bend, sag, or fail (tree limbs or entire trees), coming into contact with nearby distribution power lines. Fallen trees can cause short- circuiting and conductor overloading. Wind- induced damage to the power system causes power outages to customers, incurs cost to make repairs, and in some cases can lead to ignitions that start wild land fires. One of the strongest and most widespread existing mitigation strategies pertains to tree clearance. Currently, California State Law requires utility companies to maintain specific clearances (depending on the type of voltage running through the line) between electric power lines and all vegetation. Enforcement of the following California Public Resource Code Sections provides guidance on tree pruning regulations :' 4293: Power Line Clearance Required 4292: Power Line Hazard Reduction 4291: Reduction of Fire Hazards Around Buildings 4171: Public Nuisances The following pertain to tree pruning regulations and are taken from the California Code of Regulations: Title 14: Minimum Clearance Provisions Sections 1250 -1258 General Industry Safety Orders Title 8: Group 3: Articles 12, 13, 36, 37, 38 California Penal Code Section 385 133 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 i Finally, the following California Public Utilities Commission section has additional guidance: California Public Utilities Commission General Order 95: Rule 35 Homeowner Liability Failure to allow a utility company to comply with the law can result in liability to the homeowner for damages or injuries resulting from a vegetation hazard. Many insurance companies do not cover these types of damages if the policy owner has refused to allow the hazard to be eliminated. The power companies, in compliance with the 9 above regulations, collect data about tree failures and their impact on power lines. This mitigation strategy assists the power company in preventing future tree failure. From the collection of this data, the power company can advise residents as to the most appropriate vegetative planting and pruning procedures. The following chart depicts some of the tree failure data collected by Southern California Edison in this comprehensive mitigation strategy: WINDSTORM RESOURCE DIRECTORY State Resources California Division of Forestry & Fire Protection 1416 9th Street PO Box 944246 Sacramento California 94244 -2460 916- 653 -5123 http://wvvw,fire.ca.gov/php/index.php Federal Resources and Programs National Weather Service Los Angeles /Oxnard Weather Forecast Office 520 North Elevar Street Oxnard, CA 93030 Forecast and weather info: 805 - 988 -6610 Administrative issues: 805 - 988 -6615 E -mail: Webmaster.LOX @noaa.gov http://weather.noaa.gov/ Additional Resources International Society of Arboriculture. P.O. Box 3129 Champaign, IL 61826 -3129 Phone: 217.355.9411 Fax: 217.355.9516 Web: www.isa - arbor.com E -mail: isa @isa - arbor.com Publications WINDSTORMS: Protect Your Family and Property from the Hazards of Violent Windstorms http://emd.wa.gov/5-prep/trng/pubed/Windstrm,pdf 134 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Preparing Your Home for Severe Windstorms is available from http: / /www.chubb.com /personal /htm l /helpful_tips_home_windstorm. html End Notes 1. htto : / /nimbo.wrh.noaa.aov /Sandieao /snawind.html 2. Ibid 3. Keith C. Heidorn at http: / /www.suitel0l.com /article.cfm /13646/100918, June 1, 2003 4. Ibid 5. Ibid 6. Ibid www.cpuc.ca.gov/js.asp 135 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Table of Contents Why Are Community Events a Threat to City of Santa Monica.. ............. ...... ... ..... ........ 137 Community Events Characteristics ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, „ - „- ,,,,,137 Hazard Identification 138 Vulnerability and Risk ______----------------------------------------- _ -------------------- 138 Community Events Issues .......................°----...--.-....-----.-.....--°-°--....-.. ..--- °--........- °----- ..... - -. -..139 Community Events Resource Directory ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,, ,,,, „- ,,,,,,, ,141 136 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 WHY ARE COMMUNITY EVENTS A RISK TO THE CITY OF SANTA MONICA? As a beachfront city located in Los Angeles County, offering direct contact with the beach and ocean, Santa Monica is the site of many public and community events. The proximity to major cities such as Los Angeles, Pacific Palisades, Brentwood, and Venice adds a special dynamic to the city's events. This makes the Community Events Hazard a Risk Hazard for the City of Santa Monica. Many of these events provide challenges for the City requiring the deployment of representatives of the Community Events Committee for various activities such as posting and enforcing parking restrictions, closing streets, and directing traffic. For the purposes of this section, a "Community Event" may be defined as: a. A parade, procession or assembly consisting of persons, animals, vehicles, or any combination thereof, which is to assemble or travel in unison on any public street, highway, alley, sidewalk or other City- designated public way and which either: 1) may impede, obstruct, impair or interfere with free use of such public street, highway, alley, sidewalk or other public way owned, controlled or maintained by the City or 2) does not comply with normal or usual traffic regulations or controls; or b. Any activity or event on City owned, controlled or maintained property not subject to the requirements in subsection (a) of this section, involving 150 or more persons, or involving 75 or more persons on the Santa Monica Third Street Promenade; or c. Any other activity or event on public property which requires the placement of a tent, canopy, or other temporary structure if that placement requires a permit from the City's Fire Department or Building and Safety Division. COMMUNITY EVENTS` CHARACTERISTICS' Community Events can be categorized into the following major categories: a. Category 1 Events • recreation (e.g., games, arts & crafts activities, participatory dances, pep rallies, reunions, weddings, birthdays, anniversaries, bar mitzvahs and other parties) • competition /contests (e.g., surfing contests, sand castle building) • spectator sports (e.g., beach volleyball, hockey, basketball) • athletic events (e.g., races, runs) • circuses, fairs and carnivals (e.g., booths, games, rides and similar amusements) • food - related events (e.g., barbeques, cook -offs, picnics, food distribution, food festivals) • beach /park clean -ups • training activities (e.g., corporate sessions, team - building activities) b. Category 2 Events • Events not included within Category 1 above (e.g., parades, demonstrations, fundraiser events or walks) which require a permit from Building and Safety and /or the Fire Department as detailed in Section VII (4) and (5) of the Events Administrative Instruction. c. Category 3 Events • Events not included within Category 1 above (e.g., parades, demonstrations, fundraiser events or walks) which do not require a permit from Building and Safety and /or the Fire Department as detailed in Section VII (4) and (5) of the Events Administrative Instruction. There are also other major events that are not regularly recurring but are nonetheless frequent. Some examples include visits from dignitaries, VIPs or Presidents. Each of these events draws thousands of participants or spectators, and they obviously have special security considerations. 137 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 For a variety of reasons, numerous large events can be a source of problems. They can be terrorist targets or sources of civil unrest. Many ethnic and religious groups in Santa Monica have various celebrations and public events throughout the year; these may be targets for terrorists or demonstrators. Entertainment industry events can be targeted by protestors or terrorists because of their symbolic nature. Protests or political rallies can turn violent. Simply having a massive concentration of people requires additional planning and caution, regardless of the special risks associated with any particular event. Even without a major incident, massive public gatherings cause their own variety of "trouble" for Santa Monica. Crowds in general are associated with increased crime, street closures, delayed traffic, and so on. In many cases, emergency vehicles must detour around community events. If an emergency occurs at the heart of such an event, emergency vehicles may also have trouble getting to the site of the incident. Even without violence or tragedy, the best planned community events are rarely without problems or side - effects. Santa Monica has been able to learn lessons from its own previous major events (the July 4th 2000 Pier Shooting, the 2003 Farmers' Market Tragedy, and the 2011 Synagogue Bombing). Other emergencies and tragedies across the nation also provided learning opportunities for Santa Monica. These examples include the following major events: the 1989 earthquake in San Francisco during the World Series; the 1996 bombing at the Atlanta Olympic Games; the 1999 protests in Seattle during the World Trade Organization meetings; 2003 fire in Rhode Island during a rock concert; and the 2013 bombing at the Boston Marathon. Each of these events, regardless of the magnitude of tragedy, provides Santa Monica with a basis for future special event planning. IDENTIFYING A COMMUNITY EVENTS HAZARD Community Events pose three types of hazards: 1) First, such events result in concentrations of large numbers of people within limited geographic areas. Such concentrations exacerbate the effects of any other hazard that may result from, or be coincidental to the event. Community Events may increase the likelihood of human caused hazards such as terrorism, civil unrest or high occupancy building fire. Injuries and /or loss of life due to a naturally occurring hazard may be much greater if hazards such as earthquakes or severe weather occur during a Community Event. 2) Secondly, large scale Community Events require the deployment of police, fire, and emergency medical personnel, rendering these resources unavailable for response to emergencies in other locations in the City. 3) Finally, many large scale Community Events result in street closures and increased traffic congestion, slowing response time for emergency personnel and equipment. COMMUNITY EVENT VULNERABILITY AND RISKS In the City of Santa Monica, Community Events which require extraordinary deployment of City resources, or which result in blockage or closure of public streets or sidewalks require event sponsors to obtain special permits. Depending upon the nature of the event, permits are obtained from the Community Events Office. The Community Events Committee is comprised of representatives from: 11 138 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 • Airport • Beach Administration • Big Blue Bus • Building and Safety • Business and Revenue Operations • City Manager's Office • City Planning • Community and Cultural Services Administration • Community Recreation • Cultural Affairs • Custodial Services and Facilities Management • Facilities Management • Finance • Fire • Housing and Economic Development • Parking Office • Police • Public Landscape • Public Works Administration • Resource Recovery and Recycling • Risk Management • Strategic and Transportation Planning • Street and Fleet Services • Transportation Engineering Group • Water/Wastewater Also included are representatives from City- funded entities (e.g., DTSM, Inc. and SMPC), whose contractual obligations with the City include operation or oversight of public venues used for community events. The Community and Cultural Services Department administers the permitting process. Most Community Events — even small events such as street fairs -- typically require deployment of Community Events Committee resources. In addition to resource deployment for the events themselves, Community Events require advanced planning and coordination by involved agencies. Working with event sponsors, representatives from the Community Events Committee personnel develops plans for traffic control and routing, street closures, and special parking restrictions as required. SMPD develops plans for security, crowd control and critical asset protection. COMMUNITY EVENTS ISSUES Community Event Traffic Management Plans Transportation Engineering & Management screens approved permits for Community Events to determine the appropriate level of response. Responses range from simply posting parking restrictions at the event location to preparation of detailed Special Event Traffic Management Plans for larger scale events. Many factors go into the preparation of a successful Community Event Traffic Management Plan. Negotiations are held with event sponsors and other affected agencies to identify issues and areas of concern. Access to critical facilities such as hospitals, churches and schools must be maintained while minimizing the conflicts between event participants and vehicular traffic. 139 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 i Conflicts between event participants and non -event traffic are minimized by designing a cordoned area for event participants and designating detour routes around the cordoned area for non -event traffic and transit buses. The proper preparation and implementation of a Community Event Traffic Management Plan may require involvement from several units within the Community Events Committee including field crews, engineering staff and parking enforcement personnel. Map 2.7.1 illustrates a road closures for the Los Angeles Marathon. Community Event Security Security for most events can be handled in a routine fashion. However, certain high - profile events require special preparations and planning. For security planning purposes, high profile community events fall into three categories: 1) unique events that warrant a focus on security simply because they are so rare (such as a visit by the a foreign religious or political leader); 2) events that would otherwise be considered normal except for the unique nature of the guests or agenda; or 3) events that are controversial or worthy of media attention. The assessment of potential threats must take into account a number of factors. First, threats increase for high profile events, especially where media coverage is involved. Participation by VIP's also raises threat levels, as does the symbolic value of the event or venue. SMPD planning for community events is led by the Events Planning Unit, housed within the Operations Division. Since Santa Monica is host to a large number of special events, the Department maintains Standing Plans to deal with a wide variety of special events. In addition, the Department maintains single purpose operations plans to deal with specific events or incidents. 140 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 For major Community Events, special operations plans may be prepared specifically for the event. Event planning consists of control and containment. This may be accomplished by the Event Planning Unit, or a special task force may be created depending upon the size of the event. Vulnerability and Risk Assessment to Community Events Hazards Santa Monica will continue to be subject to Community Event Hazards. As a beachfront city located in Los Angeles County offering direct contact with the beach and ocean, the home of myriad ethnic and religious groups, the location of numerous major and well -known venues such as the famous Santa Monica Pier, Community Events are an inevitable component of daily life in Santa Monica. Community Events occur in all geographic areas of the City, among all segments of the population. In fact, the richness of the Events calendar in Santa Monica is one of the factors that make life in the City interesting, exciting, and attracts many vacationers. By the same token, Santa Monica will continue to be vulnerable to the hazards associated with Community Events. As the City grows and diversifies, the number and variety of Community Events is likely to increase. Estimating Potential Loss Community Events in and of themselves pose minimal threats to the physical infrastructure of the City. Critical Response Facilities, Critical Infrastructure, and Critical Operating Facilities are unlikely to experience physical damage as a direct result of Community Events. However, such facilities may be temporarily inaccessible due to Community Events that involve assemblage of large numbers of people, street closures, or traffic congestion. COMMUNITY: EVENTS RESOURCE DIRECTORY Community Events Clover Park 2600 Ocean Park Blvd. Santa Monica, CA. 90404 For more information: communityevents@smgov.net 310 - 458 -8300 141 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Table of Contents Why is the Exposition Light Rail a Threat to City of Santa Monica _ ----------------------- _--- _ -- ._.._____.143 Exposition Light Rail Characteristics ................................... .... ..... --- _____________________ -- ......__.._.143 Vulnerability and Risk 145 Mitigation Assessment, Evaluation, and Considerations_ _______________________ __ _____ ____________________________146 Exposition Light Rail Resource Directory 147 142 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 WHY IS THE EXPOSITION LIGHT RAIL A'RISK TO THE CITY OF SANTA MONICA? The Exposition Light Rail Project (Expo LRT) is a 15 -mile light rail line extending from Downtown Los Angeles to Downtown Santa Monica and will be the first extension of Metro rail to the west side. Expo Light Rail Transit (LRT) in Santa Monica will consist of three stations, a maintenance facility, a bike path, and approximately three miles of trackway. East of 17th Street, tracks will run in the existing Metro right -of -way located south of Colorado and crossing to the south side of Olympic Boulevard near 20th Street. West of 17th Street the tracks will run in the center of Colorado Avenue. The three stations in Santa Monica are located at Olympic /26th Street (Bergamot Station), at Colorado Avenue /17th Street (Memorial Park /17th St. Station), and at 4th /Colorado (Downtown Station). Trains will operate at -grade throughout Santa Monica, with the exception of aerial crossings over Cloverfield Avenue /Olympic Boulevard and Centinela Avenue. The Expo LRT to Santa Monica is a significant and long -term public investment in transit, city -wide and regional mobility, and sustainability. It will provide Santa Monica residents, employees, students and visitors with easier access to major destinations both locally and regionally. Map 2.8.1 Exposition Light Rail Map EXPOSITION LIGHT RAIL CHARACTERISTICS The Exposition Light Rail Project (Expo LRT) is a 15 -mile light rail line extending from Downtown Los Angeles to a terminus station in Downtown Santa Monica. The project will connect to the Los Angeles County Metro (Metro) rail network in Downtown. Phase 1 of the project from Los Angeles to Culver City is nearing completion; Phase 2 consists of the 7 -mile segment from Culver City to Downtown Santa Monica. The project is part of a significant county -wide investment in transportation facilitated by the passage of Measure R. Passed by LA County voters in 2008, Measure R is a half -cent sales tax to finance new transportation projects and programs, and accelerate those already in the pipeline: 143 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Expo Phase 1 Station with center platform configuration When Phase 2 is completed in 2015, it will take approximately 46 minutes to travel from Downtown Los Angeles to Downtown Santa Monica on the light rail. The Expo line is projected to be one of the busiest light rail lines in the country, with a projected ridership of 64,000 boardings and alightings per weekday along the entire alignment. Three stations are planned to service Santa Monica — at Olympic /26th Street (Bergamot Station), at Colorado Avenue /17th Street (Memorial Park /17th St. Station), and at 4th /Colorado (Downtown Station). Expo Phase 1 Station platform 144 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Platforms are typically 12' wide for side platforms (proposed for Bergamot Station) or 16' wide for center platforms (proposed for Memorial Park and Downtown Stations) and are furnished with a shade canopy and benches. The Construction Authority's design -build process includes a reconfiguration of Colorado Avenue from 17th to 4th Streets in order to accommodate the new 26 -foot wide light rail trackway in the center of the street including significant underground utility reconfiguration. The trackway will remove one lane of traffic in each direction, resulting in a 19.5 -foot lane on the north side, including a 7 -foot parking lane, and a 14.5 -foot lane on the south side with no parking. The south curb line will be moved southward but maintain a minimum 10 foot sidewalk and parkway zone. Details of the Colorado Avenue reconfiguration such as corner treatments, landscaping, and street lights will be identified in upcoming stages of the design -build concurrent processes. Generally the train will travel at the speed of vehicle traffic through the street - running at -grade section in Santa Monica west of 17th Street. The train will slow as it enters each station and then comes to a complete stop. For the Downtown Station, the City worked closely with the Construction Authority to develop a modified track and station alignment. This modified alignment will provide for increased train speeds through the intersection of 5th Street /Colorado Avenue by softening the track curvature leading to the station. The modified station improves pedestrian station access, better integrates the station on the site, may improve traffic operation on the 4th and 5th Street off -ramp, and leaves sufficient city -owned property to enable a future use of the remaining site for mixed -use development, parking or other community priorities. The Downtown Station and track alignment of the light rail are being designed for weekday peak hour traffic operations similar to what is currently experienced in the Downtown. Proposed project changes and betterments include: ® Downtown Station /4th Street: An improved station platform alignment that increases train operating speeds, improves traffic operation on the 4th and 5th Street off -ramp, and improves station pedestrian access. • Memorial Park Station /17th Street: A western station entrance and crossing to anticipate surges in ridership and high bicycle use projected at this station due to proximity to Santa Monica College and large employers. • Bergamot Station /26th Street: A side platform configuration to integrate the station into Bergamot Arts Center and Bergamot Transit Village with pedestrian crossings at both ends of the station. VULNERABILITY AND RISK ASSESSMENT The transportation infrastructure is the backbone to a City's success. Disruption of highway systems, mass transit, or commercial and industrial modes of transporting can strangle traffic and can affect the productivity of a city. Inter - dependencies exist between transportation and nearly every other sector of the economy. A failure to the transportation infrastructure is defined as a shutdown of a segment of the transportation sector. Disruption to any part of the Expo LRT would result in major safety and economic impacts to the City. Light rail vehicles may derail anywhere along the line for a variety of reasons, with most significant transportation incidents being the affects of natural or technological hazards. While such incidents are less common than automobile accidents, they have the possibility of being more severe due to the mass of the vehicles and the volume. Operator error or equipment malfunction is typically an isolated event; however, these isolated events can result in mass casualties and a have a significant cascading impact on the short-term efficiency of an area. Ground transportation is essential for ingress and egress for emergency vehicles during disasters and is essential for police services. Access for 145 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 emergency vehicles on freeways, highways, primary roads and secondary roads due to road damage can significantly reduce response. Cities are dependent on a maintained and functioning transportation system in order for it to carry out daily activities. The majority of the rail lines in the City go through the city rather than around it. As a consequence of the proximity of the rail lines to the homes and businesses in the area, an incident could have major impacts on the health and safety of the residents and economic vitality of the community. An incident could severely strain the resources of the emergency response units, increasing the response time to affected citizens. In addition, should the railway crossing be blocked by an accident, emergency response would be severely hampered and the well -being and safety of the community citizens would be put at risk. The Federal Railroad Administration (FRA) determined for train accidents, —human factor caused 38.4% of total accidents, the largest category of train accident causes. This human factor is unique, in the way that more people are involved in the operation of the rail lines besides the operator. Because the operations of rail transit depend on a larger number of people, the potential for human error is increased. Equipment malfunctions related to Weather are a significant concern for mass transit. Extreme weather can lower equipment or transit fatigue limits. For example, extreme heat has been known'to bend rails, causing train derailment. Transit systems should be regularly inspected for evidence of fatigue failure, but certain fatigues can be naked to the human eye. MITIGATION ASSESSMENT, EVALUATION, AND CONSIDERATIONS The Santa Monica Fire Department (SMFD) has reviewed and evaluated the proposed street lane widths, parking and proposed implementation measures. They include coordinated design, training and operations measures for the City, Expo and Metro. In addition, SMFD staff has assessed the implementation of the proposed Colorado Avenue street - running alignment of the Exposition Light Rail. The goal of the City, Expo, METRO, and SMFD is to have a safe and functional street. SMFD analyzed the feasibility of the proposed street section, investigated comparable conditions in other cities, and identified appropriate measures to compensate for the lack of a 20 -foot fire engine access lane required by the California Fire Code. City staff visited Fire Departments in Long Beach, San Diego, and Portland, Oregon. The Los Angeles City Fire Department has provided best practice information and is a partner on the Fire Life Safety Committee. Staff conducted interviews with fire department and light rail operator staff, and began discussions with Expo and Metro on operational goals. In addition, staff reviewed references from the National Fire Protection Association Standards and the California Public Utility Commission's regulations governing the safety of light -rail transit. SMFD concluded that Colorado Avenue can be an operational and a functional street with the proposed lane widths of 19.5 feet on the north side, including a 7400t parking lane, and a 14.5 -foot lane on the south side with no parking. Overhead train electrification poles and wires would be located in the center of the tracks. SMFD identified necessary implementation measures for the 4th through 17th Street segment, assuming that a 14.5 -foot southern access lane is to be provided, which have been discussed with the Construction Authority and Metro. The measures are to be implemented by the Exposition Construction Authority, City Staff, SMFD, and METRO, and include: ® Installation of additional fire hydrants and relocation of select Fire Department Connections (FDC). ® Evaluate limitation of on- street parking near building entries. ® Increasing fire access as part of redevelopment of properties, especially on the south side of Colorado. 146 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 e Implementing operating, response and training protocol for light rail incidents. ® Establishing regular communications with Metro. ® Establishing with Metro standard operating procedures for LRT operations on Colorado. ® Establishing a comprehensive rail safety outreach program to be led by Metro. EXPOSITION LIGHT iRAIL RESOURCE ,DIRECTORY ! Exposition Construction Authority Hotline (213) 922 -EXPO (3976) Alex Nazarchuk City of Santa Monica Civil Engineer (310) 458 -8736 Expo Contact: info @buildexpo.org Main Office: (213) 243 -5500 707 Wilshire Boulevard, 34th Floor I Los Angeles, CA 90017 Hotline: (213) 922 -EXPO (3976) Metro One Gateway Plaza Los Angeles, CA 90012 -2952 ATTN: Customer Relations 323.GO.METRO (323.466.3876) 147 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Section I 148 Santa Monica Local Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 and the software needed to conduct this type of analysis was not available. COMMUNITY LANDSLIDE ISSUES What is Susceptible to Landslides? Landslides can affect utility services, transportation systems, and critical lifelines. Communities may suffer immediate damages and loss of service. Disruption of infrastructure, roads, and critical facilities may also have a long -term effect on the economy. Utilities, including potable water, wastewater, telecommunications, natural gas, and electric power are all essential to service community needs. Loss of electricity has the most widespread impact on other utilities and on the whole community. Natural gas pipes may also be at risk of breakage from landslide movements as small as an inch or two. Roads and Bridges Losses incurred from landslide hazards in the City of Santa Monica have been associated with roads, specifically the Pacific Coast Highway. The City of Santa Monica Roads Division is responsible for responding to slides that inhibit the flow of traffic or are damaging a road or a bridge. The roads department does its best to communicate with residents impacted by landslides, but can usually only repair the road itself, as well as the areas adjacent to the slide where the city has the right of way. It is not cost effective to mitigate all slides because of limited funds and the fact that some historical slides are likely to become active again even with mitigation measures. The city Roads Division alleviates problem areas by grading slides, and by installing new drainage systems on the slopes to divert water from the landslides. This type of response activity is often the most cost - effective in the short-term, but is only temporary. Unfortunately, many property owners are unaware of slides and the dangers associated with them. Lifelines and critical facilities Lifelines and critical facilities should remain accessible, if possible, during a natural hazard event. The impact of closed transportation arteries may be increased if the closed road or bridge is critical for hospitals and other emergency facilities. Therefore, inspection and repair of critical transportation facilities and routes is essential and should receive high priority. Losses of power and phone service are also potential consequences of landslide events. Due to heavy rains, soil erosion in hillside areas can be accelerated, resulting in loss of soil support beneath high voltage transmission towers in hillsides and remote areas. Flood events can also cause landslides, which can have serious impacts on gas lines that are located in vulnerable soils. 80 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Man 2.2.1 Landslide Susceptibility in Santa Monica LANDSLIDE RESOURCE DIRECTORY County Resources Los Angeles County Department of Public Works State Resources • Department of Conservation Headquarters • California Geological Survey Headquarters /Office of the State Geologist • California Division of Forestry • Department of Water Resources • Governor's Office of Emergency Services • California Department of Transportation (Cal Trans) Federal Resources and Programs • Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) • Natural Resource Conservation Service (NRCS) • US Geological Survey, National Landslide Information Center 81 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Publications Olshansky, Robert B., Planning for Hillside Development (1996) American Planning Association. This document describes the history, purpose, and functions of hillside development and regulation and the role of planning, and provides excerpts from hillside plans, ordinances, and guidelines from communities throughout the US. Olshansky, Robert B. & Rogers, J. David, Unstable Ground: Landslide Policy in the United States (1987) Ecology Law Quarterly. This is about the history and policy of landslide mitigation in the US. Public Assistance Debris Management Guide (July 2000) Federal Emergency Management Agency. The Debris Management Guide was developed to assist local officials in planning, mobilizing, organizing, and controlling large -scale debris clearance, removal, and disposal operations. Debris management is generally associated with post- disaster recovery. While it should be compliant with local and city emergency operations plans, developing strategies to ensure strong debris management is a way to integrate debris management within mitigation activities. The Guide is available in hard copy or on the FEMA website. USGS Landslide Program Brochure. National Landslide Information Center (NLIC), United States Geologic Survey. The brochure provides good, general information in simple terminology on the importance of landslide studies and a list of databases, outreach, and exhibits maintained by the NLLC. The brochure also includes information on the types and causes of landslides, rock falls, and earth flows. Landslide Endnotes I. . Mileti, Dennis, Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States (1999) Joseph Henry Press, Washington D.C. II. . Brabb, E.E., and B.L Harrod. (Eds) Landslides: Extent and Economic Significance. Proceedings of the 28th International Geo logical Congress Symposium on Landslides. (1989) Washington D.C., Rotterdam: Balkema. III. . Highland, L.M., and Schuster, R.L., Significant Landslide Events in the United States. (No Date) USGS, Washington D.C., http: / /landslides. usgs.gov. html_ files/ pubs /reportl /Landslides_pass_508. pdf IV. .Ibid. V. .Ibid. VI. . Ibid. VII. . Ibid. VIII. . Ibid. IX. .Ibid. X. . Ibid. XI. . Ibid. XII. . Ibid. XIII. . Ibid. XIV. .Ibid. XV. . Ibid. XVI. . Ibid. XVII. . Ibid. XVII I. . Ibid. XIX. .Ibid. XX. . Ibid. XXI. . Landslide Hazards, U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 0071 -00, Version 1.0, U.S. Department of the Interior - U.S. Geological Survey, http: / /pubs.usgs.gov /fs /fs- 0071 -00/ XXII. . Interagency Hazard Mitigation Team, State Hazard Mitigation Plan (2000) Oregon Emergency Management 82 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 XXI II. . Ibid. XXIV. . Barrows, Alan and Smith, Ted, DMG Note 13, http:i /www.consrv.ca. gov /cgs/ information / publications /cgs_notes /note_33/ XXV. . Robert Olson Associates, Metro Regional Hazard Mitigation and Planning Guide (June 1999) Metro XXVL .Ibid. XXVII. . Planning For Natural Hazards: The Oregon Technical Resource Guide, Department of Land Conservation and Development (2000), Ch 5. XXVIII. . Homeowners Guide for Landslide Control, Hillside Flooding, Debris Flows, Soil Erosion, (March 1997) XXIX. . Burby, R. (Ed.) Cooperating With Nature (1998) Washington, D.C.: Joseph Henry Press. 83 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Why Are Floods a Threat to the City of Santa Monica History of Flooding in the Southern California Region What Factors Create Flood Risk? ..... ..... ................ Flood Terminology ------------- -------- ------ ... -, Characteristics of Flooding ............... ...... ................... Hazard Identification ............ --- --------------- .................. RiskAnalysis . ............ .... ........................ ................. Vulnerability Assessment Community Flood Issues Flood Resource Directory CL! --------- 85 - 86 89 - ---- -- - --- 91 ............ 92 95 ......---...95 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 WHY ARE FLOODS A THREAT TO THE CITY OF SANTA MONICA Santa Monica is designated by the National Flood Insurance Program as a Zone "C ", or City of minimal flood hazard. The hazardous situations caused by storms are generally dependent on the amount of warning time that the City receives prior to an actual disaster. Monitoring of storms by weather services have historically provided warning times that can vary from weeks to hours prior to the event. The ability of City personnel to conduct an evacuation, provide sandbagging, and perform other mitigative measures is dependent on the amount of warning time that the City receives from weather services. The City of Santa Monica is familiar with the flooding and destruction caused by astronomical tides and heavy storm conditions. During the winter of 1983, the City suffered a major loss to the Pier facility. Most of the west end of the Pier and the section under Pacific Park was rebuilt with concrete pilings and caps following the 1983 storm. Again, in 1988, additional storm damage was sustained. In 1998, the El Nino Storms created approximated $400,000 in flood damage and recurring landslides along Palisades Park blocking Pacific Coast Highway. The landslide was approximately 115 feet high and 150 feet wide. Sloughing affected the stability of the near vertical bluff. Mitigation measures of drilling vertically and horizontally into the hillside assisted in removing water from bluff and grading the top and bottom of the bluff reduced the threat to life and property. There are a number of rivers in the Southern California region, but the river with the best recorded history is the Los Angeles River. The flood history of the Los Angeles River is generally indicative of the flood history of much of Southern California. The Los Angeles County Drainage Area comprises a 1,459 square mile watershed which flows to the Pacific Ocean mainly through the Los Angeles River and the San Gabriel River. The Los Angeles River is approximately 55 miles long and has an aggregate tributary system which is 225 miles in length. Stream slopes range from extremely steep, 200 feet per mile or more in the mountains, to about three feet per mile over the coastal plain. Due to steep terrain, runoff from the mountains concentrates quickly. Runoff from urban watersheds is generally uncontrolled and is characterized by high flood peaks of short durations, because a high percentage of the rain falls on impervious cover. Los Angeles area flood events are typically of less than twelve hour durations. The lower Los Angeles River will respond to heavy rain by rising from 2/3 channel capacity to full in less than an hour, and reversing to 2/3 channel capacity within two hours. Such events have been noted recently, in 1980, 1993 and 1995. Through historic times, and as evidenced in a variety of pre- historic sources, the Los Angeles area has been periodically pounded by heavy rains and inundated by floods. Some of the heaviest rains ever recorded on the west coast of North America occurred near Los Angeles as a result of the high transverse orographic barrier catching a moist subtropical airflow. Historical references highlight eight major floods across the coastal plain in the Los Angeles area between 1815 and 1876. From 1884 to 1938, nine more floods wreaked havoc. In the latter half of the twentieth century, enormous public work projects were completed which served to mitigate flood damage in the Los Angeles area. Prior to 1915, little was done to control flooding within the county. To the contrary, uncontrolled growth and economic development did much to exacerbate a growing urban flood problem, which in fact had become one of the worst in the United States. Through the early twentieth century, the Los Angeles River, at 55 miles long, was the county's major (and most capricious) drainage. The Los Angeles River had a long history of meandering almost at random across the coastal plain, emptying into the Pacific Ocean at various places from Santa Monica to Long Beach. Flood destruction and loss of life awakened the growing population of the Los Angeles Basin to the need for flood control. The Los Angeles County Flood Control District was established in 1915, and Congress i 85 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 authorized the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers to work on the Los Angeles River problem at about the same time. The river posed major difficulties: An intermittent and swampy slough in the late summer, it became an unpredictable and raging torrent during periods of heavy rain. In flood stage, the river was gorged with huge volumes of water, strong current velocities, large debris loads, and unstable channels. As the population of the Los Angeles area grew rapidly in the early twentieth century, each flood produced increasing damage to the district, and scores of lives were lost. Flood control had become absolutely essential. Between 1917 and 1965, the huge public works projects undertaken by the Corps of Engineers and its partners bore fruit. With great leaps forward in technology and in ecological sensitivity, a series of catchment basins and concrete or stone -lined channels controlled the Los Angeles River, its tributaries, and other streams within the district. The cost was high — over two billion dollars in federal and local funds for the entire project —but great benefits were realized. There were no more catastrophic floods after the 1950s, in spite of the sharp upward trend in urbanization and an increase in the number of heavy rainfall events late in the century. In addition, valuable recreation land was set aside for the public trust as a result of construction of catchment basins along channels. The last major flood destruction in Los Angeles occurred on March 2, 1938. Forty -nine lives Were lost. A major rainfall event occurred in 1969, in which an estimated $1.5 billion in damage was saved by flood control projects. Other heavy rains in 1983, 1992 and 1998 were well - handled by the complex system of drainages, catchments and bridges built by the Corps of Engineers within the Los Angeles area. The current Los Angeles County Drainage Area flood control system is one of the world's largest and most extensive flood protection infrastructures. This flood protection includes: 15 flood control reservoirs 5 flood control basins 143 debris control basins 225 stabilization dams 33 storm water pumping plants 470 miles of open, improved channel 2,400 miles of underground drains 75,000 catch basins The Corps of Engineers estimates that the value of damages prevented by the system in storms during its lifetime has already reached $3.6 billion. Projects now underway in the lower Los Angeles River will expand the channel capacity from 133,000 cubic feet per second (cfs) to 182,000 cfs, which would approximate a 133 -year flood (Plates 1 -5). Heavy rain still poses a flooding threat in the Los Angeles Basin, but the greatest problems are now associated with urban flooding, ponding of water in poorly drained areas, and high outflow of water, mud and debris below canyons draining higher terrain. Records show that since 1811, the Los Angeles River has flooded 30 times, on average once every 6.1 years. But averages are deceiving, for the Los Angeles basin goes through periods of drought and then periods of above average rainfall. Between 1889 and 1891 the river flooded every year, and from 1941 to 1945, the river flooded 5 times. Conversely, from 1896 to 1914, a period of 18 years, and again from 1944 to 1969, a period of 25 years, the river did not have serious floods.' f 86 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Table 2.3.1 Major Floods of the Los Angeles River 1811 Flooding 1815 Floodin 1825 River changed its course back from the Ballona wetlands to San Pedro 1832 Heavy flooding 1861 -62 Heavy flooding. Fifty inches of rain falls during December and January. 1867 Floods create a large, temporary lake out to Ballona Creek. 1876 The Novician Deluge 1884 Heavy flooding causes the river to change course again, turning east to Vernon and then southward to San Pedro. 1888 -1891 Annual floods 1914 Heavy flooding. Great damage to the harbor. 1921 Flooding 1927 Moderate flood 1934 Moderate flood starting January 1. Forty dead in La Canada. 1938 Great County-wide flood with 4 days of rain. Most rain on clay 4. 1941 -44 L.A. River floods five times. 1952 Moderate flooding 1969 One heavy flood after 9 dav storm. One moderate flood. 1978 Two moderate floods 1979 Los Angeles experiences severe flooding and mudslides. 1980 Flood to s banks of river in Lon Beach. Sepulveda Basinspillway almost opened. 1983 Floodin kills six people. 1992 1 15 year flood. Motorists trapped in Sepulveda basin. Six people dead. 1994 1 Heav floodin Sources: http: / /www.lale.kl2.ca.us/ target /units /river /tour /hist.htmi and (http://www.losangelesalmanac.com/topics/History/hiOli.htm) Flooding in the Los Angeles Basin was mentioned by Spanish missionaries as early as the eighteenth century. But from the time of the establishment of the civil settlement at Los Angeles in 1781 until the second decade of the nineteenth century, rainfall rates were remarkably low in the area. Then in 1815, a massive flood cut a channel across what is now the downtown district, re- routing the Los Angeles River westward, where it emptied into the Pacific Ocean south of Santa Monica, at Ballona Lagoon. A decade later, an 1825 storm returned the Los Angeles River to its present channel, which now flows southward into the Pacific Ocean at San Pedro Bay. From December 24, 1861 to January 31, 1862 almost continuous heavy rainfall deluged all of California. Heaviest rains were recorded at San Francisco — which averaged almost an inch of rain per day for 30 days, in what was computed to be a 37,000 year event (Goodridge, 1997). In Los Angeles, measurable rain occurred on thirty consecutive days. Flooding and massive mudslides occurred throughout Los Angeles County, destroying property and roadways. Immediately following the flooding, in the fall of 1862, a severe drought settled into Los Angeles County. No significant rains fell again in Los Angeles until the fall of 1864. This drought doomed the embryonic cattle and livestock industry within the basin. Almost 26 inches of rain fell at Los Angeles in February and March 1884. The 1883 -84 rainfall season was the wettest in recorded history, with 38.18 inches recorded downtown. There was some loss of life in the February and March floods, and a great deal of property damage. Fifty houses were washed away in floods. The heavy rains of January 25 -26, 1914 were followed by a second and larger storm three weeks later. Large areas of the basin were flooded by the Los Angeles River. This flooding led directly to the establishment of the Los Angeles County Flood Control District in 1915. 87 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 In January 1916 Los Angeles was on the northern fringe of the storm that drenched San Diego County with its all -time record rainfalls. Los Angeles was spared the worst of the disaster, but still received nearly eleven inches of rain between January 14th and 28th, and widespread flooding occurred within the district. Beginning December 31, 1933 and continuing into New Year's Day 1934, very heavy rains caused destructive flooding and mudslides across Los Angeles County from Malibu to Covina. Fourteen weather stations in the Los Angeles area reported record maximum two -day rainfalls, with two locations recording 1,000 -year events. A rain gauge located on the slopes below Mount Wilson recorded almost fifteen inches of rain on New Year's Day. Glendale and Montrose — along the La Crescenta delta cone northwest of Pasadena — were severely affected by a huge debris flow. The effect of the heavy canyon outflows of mud, debris and boulders was exacerbated by a fire which had burned over the district during the previous summer. In all, the flooding left more than forty persons dead and destroyed or damaged 500 homes. The City of Pasadena measured 6.21 inches of rain on that New Year's Day in 1934, but the Tournament of Roses Parade went ahead as scheduled. The storm of March 2, 1938 produced another astounding precipitation and flooding event in Los Angeles County. This flood was the most destructive and violent of the twentieth century. Leading up to the March rains, Los Angeles had received about ten inches of rain in February. On March 2ntl, with the ground already saturated, five to seven inches of rain fell across the basin. Rainfall in the surrounding mountains was much heavier. Seventeen mountain gauges recorded ten inches or more of rain, with a few receiving up to 18 inches. Stream flows recorded by gauging stations within the San Gabriel Mountain watershed were phenomenal. Forty -nine persons were killed and millions of dollars of destruction was reported. Less than five years later, in 1943, it rained extremely hard on January 22nd and 23rd. The greatest 24- hour rainfall in California history occurred in this storm when 26.12 inches fell at Hoegees, below Mount Wilson. Fifteen weather stations in the transverse ranges received storm totals exceeding twenty inches — Hoegees had a storm total of 36.34 inches — while many more stations in the foothills and valleys of Los Angeles County reported a one hundred -year event. Goodridge (1998) stated that the area encompassing a 100 -year or more return period covered 11,000 square miles, and extended from Santa Barbara County to Riverside County. Southern California received heavy precipitation through the 1968 -69 seasons, particularly during January and February, when almost 23 inches of rain fell at downtown Los Angeles. A low pressure trough had anchored off the southern California coast, setting up a steady -state subtropical moisture flow across the district. During this event, almost three hundred rain gauges recorded the highest -ever 60 -day rainfalltotals. Flood control projects completed before 1968 mitigated property damage in Los Angeles. When the 1969 El Nino rains finally ended, Frank G. Bonelli of the Los Angeles County Board of Supervisors stated that "the overall flood control system prevented one of the worst catastrophes in the history of Los Angeles." To the north, across Santa Barbara County and San Luis Obispo County, losses and damage from these heavy rains had been much more severe. In the month of February 1980, thirteen inches of rain fell after an abnormally wet January. The Los Angeles River slightly overflowed the levees at the lower end of the river at Wardlow Road. The 129,000 cfs river gauge measurement at that location was the highest recorded since records began in 1928. This 40 -year flood event broke through a barrier that was supposed to withstand a 100 -year flood, which caused the Corps of Engineers to re- evaluate flood protection for the lower Los Angeles River. The January 4, 1995 storm caused about six million dollars damage, mostly as a result of urban flooding from record rainfalls in the south portion of the Los Angeles Basin. Between 3:00 and 4:30 p.m. on January 4th, the area in south Los Angeles County between Long Beach and Carson was deluged with up to 3.40 inches of rain, while a gauge near LAX received only 0.12 inches and the Pomona area 88 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 reported 0.55 inches. Two hundred structures were flooded and one hundred vehicles abandoned. Flood control facilities operated at peak capacity at many locations for short periods of time during the event, but the Los Angeles River did not approach capacity because intense rainfall occurred over only a relatively small portion of the lower drainage basin. In 1998, another strong El Nino episode produced the wettest February of all time at downtown Los Angeles, with 13.68 inches recorded during the month. Over nineteen inches fell at Montebello Fire Station, just east of the downtown weather station. In the Los Angeles metropolitan area, seasonal rainfall records were established at six key area stations, including Chatsworth with an incredible 44.19 inches. For the entire 1997 -98 rainfall season, precipitation over the whole district averaged a whopping 230% of normal. With such huge numbers, it was somewhat surprising to note that the only flooding reported was of the urban and small stream variety —more nuisance than disaster. Several reasons are offered to explain the lack of problems associated with this very heavy rainfall season: Ample warning, well in advance, of the strong probability of heavy winter rains was provided by the National Weather Service and the media. This prompted extra vigilance in the removal of debris from storm basins and flood channels. When rains did occur, the National Weather Service, using latest technologies, communicated warnings to emergency officials. This, in turn, led to appropriate action - response. The rains were spread fairly evenly over the course of the 1997 -1998 seasons. Adequate long -term flood control measures by the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers and their partners were largely completed and in place. The towering mountains that give the Los Angeles region its spectacular views also wring a great deal of rain out of the storm clouds that pass through. Because the mountains are so steep, the rainwater moves rapidly down the slopes and across the coastal plains on its way to the ocean. "The Santa Monica, Santa Susana and Verdugo mountains, which surround three sides of the valley seldom reach heights above three thousand feet. The western San Gabriel Mountains, in contrast, have elevations of more than seven thousand feet. These higher ridges often trap eastern - moving winter storms. Although downtown Los Angeles averages just fifteen inches of rain a year, some mountain peaks in the San Gabriels receive more than forty inches of precipitation annually." Naturally, this rainfall moves rapidly downstream, often with severe consequences for anything in its path. In extreme cases, flood - generated debris flows will roar down a canyon at speeds near 40 miles per hour with a wall of mud, debris and water tens of feet high. In Southern California, stories of floods, debris flows, persons buried alive under tons of mud and rock and persons swept away to their death in a river flowing at thirty -five miles an hour are without end. No catalog of chaos could contain all the losses suffered by man and his possessions from the regions rivers and streams. WHAT FACTORS CREATE FLOOD RISK? Flooding occurs when climate, geology, and hydrology combine to create conditions where water flows outside of its usual course. Winter Rainfall Over the last 125 years, the average annual rainfall in Los Angeles is 14.9 inches. But the term "average" means very little as the annual rainfall during this time period has ranged from only 4.35 inches in 2001- 2002 to 38.2 inches in 1883 -1884. In fact, in only fifteen of the past 125 years, has the annual rainfall been within plus or minus 10% of the 14.9 inch average. And in only 38 years has the annual rainfall been within plus or minus 20% of the 14.9 inch average. This makes the Los Angeles basin a land of extremes in terms of annual precipitation. 89 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Monsoons Another relatively regular source for heavy rainfall, particularly in the mountains and adjoining cities is from summer tropical storms. Table 2.3.2 lists tropical storms that have had significant rainfall in the past century, and the general areas affected by these storms. These tropical storms usually coincide with El Nino years. Table 2.3.2 Tropical cyclones that have affected Southern California during the 20th Century Month -Year Date(s) Area(s) Affected Rainfall July 1902 20 -21 Deserts & Southern Mountains up to 2" Aug. 1906 18 -19 Deserts & Southern Mountains up to 5' Sept. 1910 15 Mountains of Santa Barbara Count 2" Aug. 1921 20 -21 Deserts & Southern Mountains up to 2" Sept. 1921 30 Deserts up to 4" Sept. 1929 18 Southern Mountains & Deserts up to 4" Sept. 1932 28 -Oct 1 Mountains & Deserts, 15 Fatalities up to 7 Aug. 1935 25 Southern Valleys, Mountains & Deserts up to 2" Sept. 1939 4 -7 Southern Mountains, Southern & Eastern Deserts up to 7 11 -12 Deserts, Central & Southern Mountains up to 4" 19 -21 Deserts, Central & Southern Mountains up to 3" 25 Long Beach, W/ Sustained Winds of 50 Mph 5' Surrounding Mountains 6 to 12" Sept. 1945 9 -10 Central & Southern Mountains up to 2" Sept. 1946 30 -Oct 1 Southern Mountains up to 4" Aug. 1951 27 -29 Southern Mountains & Deserts 2 to 5' Sept. 1952 19 -21 Central & Southern Mountains up to 2" July 1954 17 -19 Deserts & Southern Mountains up to 2" July 1958 28 -29 Deserts & Southern Mountains up to 2" Sept. 1960 9 -10 Julian 3.40" Sept. 1963 17 -19 Central & Southern Mountains up to 7" Sept. 1967 1 -3 Southern Mountains & Deserts 2" Oct. 1972 6 Southeast Deserts up to 2" Sept. 1976 10 -11 Central & Southern Mountains. 6 to 12" Aug. 1977 n/a Los Angeles 2" Mountains up to 8" Oct. 1977 6 -7 Southern Mountains & Deserts- up to 2" Sept. 1978 5 -6 Mountains 3" Sept. 1982 24 -26 Mountains up to 4" Sept. 1983 20 -21 Southern Mountains & Deserts up to 3" http://www.fema.gov/nwz97/ein—scal.shtm Geography and Geology The greater Los Angeles Basin is the product of rainstorms and erosion for millennia. "Most of the mountains that ring the valleys and coastal plain are deeply fractured faults and, as they (the mountains) grew taller, their brittle slopes were continually eroded. Rivers and streams carried boulders, rocks, gravel, sand, and silt down these slopes to the valleys and coastal plain .... In places these sediments are as much as twenty thousand feet thick "3 90 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Much of the coastal plain rests on the ancient rock debris and sediment washed down from the mountains. This sediment can act as a sponge, absorbing vast quantities of rain in those years when heavy rains follow a dry period. But like a sponge that is near saturation, the same soil fills up rapidly when a heavy rain follows a period of relatively wet weather. So even in some years of heavy rain, flooding is minimal because the ground is relatively dry. The same amount of rain following a wet period of time can cause extensive flooding. The greater Los Angeles basin is for all intents and purposes built out. This leaves precious little open land to absorb rainfall. This lack of open ground forces water to remain on the surface and rapidly accumulate. If it were not for the massive flood control system with its concrete lined river and stream beds, flooding would be a much more common occurrence. And the tendency is towards even less and less open land. In -fill building is becoming a much more common practice in many areas. Developers tear down an older home which typically covers up to 40% of the lot size and replacing it with three or four town homes or apartments which may cover 90 -95% of the lot. Another potential source of flooding is "asphalt creep." The street space between the curbs of a street is a part of the flood control system. Water leaves property and accumulates in the streets, where it is directed towards the underground portion of the flood control system. The carrying capacity of the street is determined by the width of the street and the height of the curbs along the street. Often, when streets are being resurfaced, a one to two inch layer of asphalt is laid down over the existing asphalt. This added layer of asphalt subtracts from the rated capacity of the street to carry water. Thus the original engineered capacity of the entire storm drain system is marginally reduced over time. Subsequent re- paving of the street will further reduce the engineered capacity even more. FLOOD TERMINOLOGY Floodplain A floodplain is a land area adjacent to a river, stream, lake, estuary, or other water body that is subject to flooding. This area, if left undisturbed, acts to store excess flood water. The floodplain is made up of two sections: the floodway and the flood fringe. 100 -Year Flood The 100 -year flooding event is the flood having a one percent chance of being equaled or exceeded in magnitude in any given year. Contrary to popular belief, it is not a flood occurring once every 100 years. The 100 -year floodplain is the area adjoining a river, stream, or watercourse covered by water in the event of a 100 -year flood. Floodway The Floodway is one of two main sections that make up the floodplain. F000dways are defined for regulatory purposes. Unlike floodplains, floodways do not reflect a recognizable geologic feature. For NFIP purposes, floodways are defined as the channel of a river or stream, and the overbank areas adjacent to the channel. The Floodway carries the bulk of the flood water downstream and is usually the area where water velocities and forces are the greatest. NFIP regulations require that the Floodway be kept open and free from development or other structures that would obstruct or divert flood flows onto other properties. The NFIP Floodway definition is "the channel of a river or other watercourse and adjacent land areas that must be reserved in order to discharge the base flood without cumulatively increasing the water surface elevation more than one foot." Flood Fringe The flood fringe refers to the outer portions of the floodplain, beginning at the edge of the Floodway and continuing outward. Base Flood Elevation (BFE) 91 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 The term "Base Flood Elevation" refers to the elevation (normally measured in feet above sea level) that the base flood is expected to reach. Base flood elevations can be set at levels other than the 100 -year flood. Some communities choose to use higher frequency flood events as their base flood elevation for certain activities, while using lower frequency events for others. For example, for the purpose of storm water management, a 25 -year flood event might serve as the base flood elevation; while the 500 -year flood event may serve as base flood elevation for the tie down of mobile homes. The regulations of the NFIP focus on development in the 100- yearfloodplain. CHARACTERISTICS OF FLOODING I Urban Flooding As land is converted from fields or woodlands to roads and parking lots, it loses its ability to absorb rainfall. Urbanization of a watershed changes the hydrologic systems of the basin. Heavy rainfall collects and flows faster on impervious concrete and asphalt surfaces. The water moves from the clouds, to the ground, and into streams at a much faster rate in urban areas. Adding these elements to the hydrological systems can result in flood waters that rise very rapidly and peak with violent force. Dam Failure Flooding Loss of life and damage to structures, roads, and utilities may result from a dam failure. Economic losses can also result from a lowered tax base and lack of utility profits. These effects would certainly accompany the failure of one of the major dams in the City of Santa Monica. Because dam failure can have severe consequences, FEMA requires that all dam owners develop Emergency Action Plans (EAP) for warning, evacuation, and post -flood actions. Although there may be coordination with county officials in the development of the EAP, the responsibility for developing potential flood inundation maps and facilitation of emergency response is the responsibility of the dam owner. For more detailed information regarding dam failure flooding, and potential flood inundation zones for a particular dam in the county, refer to the City of Santa Monica Emergency Action Plan. There have been a total of 45 dam failures in California, since the 19th century. The significant dam failures in Southern California are listed in Table 2.3.3. Table 2.3.3 Dam Failures in Southern California Sheffield Santa Barbara 1925 Earthquake slide Puddin stone Pomona 1926 Overtopping during construction Lake Hemet Palm Springs 1927 Overtopping Saint Francis San Francisquito Canyon 1928 Sudden failure at full capacity through foundation, 426 deaths Cogswell Monrovia 1934 Breaching of concrete cover Baldwin Hills Los Angeles 1963 Leak through embankment turned into washout, 3 deaths http: / /cee.engr. ucdavis.edu /faculty /lund/ dams /Dam_History_Page /Failures.htm The two most significant dam failures are the St. Francis Dam in 1928 and the Baldwin Hills Dam in 1963. "The failure of the St. Francis Dam, and the resulting loss of over 500 lives in the path of a roaring wall of water, was a scandal that resulted in the almost complete destruction of the reputation of its builder, William Mulholland. Mulholland was an immigrant from Ireland who rose up through the ranks of the city's water department to the position of chief engineer. It was he who proposed, designed, and supervised the construction of the Los Angeles Aqueduct, which brought water from the Owens Valley to the city. The St. Francis Dam, built in 1926, was 180 feet high and 600 feet long; it was located near Saugus in the San Francisquito Canyon. The dam gave way on March 12, 1928, three minutes before midnight. Its waters swept through the Santa Clara Valley toward the Pacific Ocean, about 54 miles away. 65 miles of valley was devastated before the water finally made its way into the ocean between Oxnard and Ventura. At its peak the wall of water was said to be 78 feet high; by the time it hit Santa Paula, 42 miles south of the 92 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 dam, the water was estimated to be 25 feet deep. Almost everything in its path was destroyed: livestock, structures, railways, bridges, and orchards. By the time it was over, parts of Ventura County lay under 70 feet of mud and debris. Over 500 people were killed and damage estimates topped $20 million. "4 The Baldwin Hills dam failed during the daylight hours, and was one of the first disaster events documented a live helicopter broadcast. "The Baldwin Hills Dam collapsed with the fury of a.thousand cloudbursts, sending a 50- foot wall of water down Cloverdale Avenue and slamming into homes and cars on Dec. 14, 1963. Five people were killed. Sixty -five hillside houses were ripped apart, and 210 homes and apartments were damaged. The flood swept northward in a V- shaped path roughly bounded by La Brea Avenue and Jefferson and La Cienega boulevards. The earthen dam that created a 19 -acre reservoir to supply drinking water for West Los Angeles residents ruptured at 3:38 p.m. As a pencil -thin crack widened to a 75 -foot gash, 292 million gallons surged out. It took 77 minutes for the lake to empty. But it took a generation for the neighborhood below to recover. And two decades passed before the Baldwin Hills ridge top was reborn. The cascade caused an unexpected ripple effect that is still being felt in Los Angeles and beyond. It foreshadowed the end of urban -area earthen dams as a major element of the Department of Water and Power's water storage system. It prompted a tightening of Division of Safety of Dams control over reservoirs throughout the state. The live telecast of the collapse from a KTLA -TV helicopter is considered the precursor to airborne news coverage that is now routine everywhere. "5 Debris Flows Another flood related hazard that can affect certain parts of the Southern California region are debris flows. Most typically debris flows occur in mountain canyons and the foothills against the San Gabriel Mountains. However, any hilly or mountainous area with intense rainfall and the proper geologic conditions may experience one of these very sudden and devastating events. "Debris flows, sometimes referred to as mudslides, mudflows, lahars, or debris avalanches, are common types of fast - moving landslides" These flows generally occur during periods of intense rainfall or rapid snow melt. They usually start on steep hillsides as shallow landslides that liquefy and accelerate to speeds that are typically about 10 miles per hour, but can exceed 35 miles per hour. The consistency of debris flows ranges from watery mud to thick, rocky mud that can carry large items such as boulders, trees, and cars. Debris flows from many different sources can combine in channels, and their destructive power may be greatly increased. They continue flowing down hills and through channels, growing in volume with the addition of water, sand, mud, boulders, trees, and other materials. When the flows reach flatter ground, the debris spreads over a broad area, sometimes accumulating in thick deposits that can wreak havoc in developed areas."' Coastal Flooding Low lying coastal communities of Southern California have one other source of flooding, coastal flooding. This occurs most often during storms which bring higher than normal tides. Storms, the time of year and the tidal cycle can sometimes work to bring much higher than normal tides which cause flooding in low lying coastal areas. This hazard however is limited to those areas. What is the Effect of Development on Floods? When structures or fill are placed in the floodway or floodplain water is displaced. Development raises the river levels by forcing the river to compensate for the flow space obstructed by the inserted structures and /or fill. When structures or materials are added to the floodway or floodplain and no fill is removed to compensate, serious problems can arise. Flood waters may be forced away from historic floodplain areas. As a result, other existing floodplain areas may experience flood waters that rise above historic levels. Local governments must require engineer certification to ensure that proposed developments will not adversely affect the flood carrying capacity of the Special Flood Hazard Area (SFHA). Displacement of only a few inches of water can mean the difference between no structural damage occurring in a given flood event, and the inundation of many homes, businesses, and other facilities. Careful attention should 93 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 be given to development that occurs within the floodway to ensure that structures are prepared to withstand base flood events. In highly urbanized areas, increased paving can lead to an increase in volume and velocity of runoff after a rainfall event, exacerbating the potential flood hazards. Care should be taken in the development and implementation of storm water management systems to ensure that these runoff waters are dealt with effectively. How are Flood -Prone Areas Identified? Flood maps and Flood Insurance Studies (FIS) are often used to identify flood -prone areas. The NFIP was established in 1968 as a means of providing low -cost flood insurance to the nation's flood -prone communities. The NFIP also reduces flood losses through regulations that focus on building codes and sound floodplain management. NFIP regulations (44 Code of Federal Regulations (CFR) Chapter 1, Section 60, 3) require that all new construction in floodplains must be elevated at or above base flood level. There are no flood prone zones in Santa Monica. Flood Insurance Rate Maps (FIRM) and Flood Insurance Studies (FIS) Floodplain maps are the basis for implementing Floodplain regulations and for delineating flood insurance purchase requirements. A Flood Insurance Rate Map (FIRM) is the official map produced by FEMA which delineates SFHA in communities where NFIP regulations apply. FIRMs are also used by insurance agents and mortgage lenders to determine if flood insurance is required and what insurance rates should apply. Water surface elevations are combined with topographic data to develop FIRMs. FIRMs illustrate areas that would be inundated during a 100 -year flood, floodway areas, and elevations marking the 100 -year- flood level. In some cases they also include base flood elevations (BFEs) and areas located within the 500 -year Floodplain. Flood Insurance Studies and FIRMs produced for the NFIP provide assessments of the probability of flooding at a given location. FEMA conducted many Flood Insurance Studies in the late 1970s and early 1980s. These studies and maps represent flood risk at the point in time when FEMA completed the studies. However, it is important to note that not all 100 -year or 500 -year floodplains have been mapped by FEMA. FEMA flood maps are not entirely accurate. These studies and maps represent flood risk at the point in time when FEMA completed the studies, and does not incorporate planning for Floodplain changes in the future due to new development. Although FEMA is considering changing that policy, it is optional for local communities. Man -made and natural changes to the environment have changed the dynamics of storm water run -off since then. Flood Mapping Methods and Techniques Although many communities rely exclusively on FIRMs to characterize the risk of flooding in their area, there are some flood -prone areas that are not mapped but remain susceptible to flooding. These areas include locations next to small creeks, local drainage areas, and areas susceptible to manmade flooding. Communities find it particularly useful to overlay flood hazard areas on tax assessment parcel maps. This allows a community to evaluate the flood hazard risk for a specific parcel during review of a development request. Coordination between FEMA and local planning jurisdictions is the key to making a strong connection with GIS technology for the purpose of flood hazard mapping. FEMA and the Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI), a private company, have formed a partnership to provide multi- hazard maps and information to the public via the Internet. ESRI produces GIS software, including ArcViewC9 and ArclnfoC9. The ESRI web site has information on GIS technology and downloadable maps. The hazards maps provided on the ESRI site are intended to assist communities in evaluating geographic information about natural hazards. Flood information for most communities is available on the ESRI web site. Visit www.esri.com for more information. 94 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 HAZARD ASSESSMENT Hazard Identification Hazard identification is the first phase of flood- hazard assessment. Identification is the process of estimating: (1) the geographic extent of the floodplain (i.e., the area at risk from flooding); (2) the intensity of the flooding that can be expected in specific areas of the floodplain; and (3) the probability of occurrence of flood events. This process usually results in the creation of a floodplain map. Floodplain maps provide detailed information that can assist jurisdictions in making policies and land -use decisions. Vulnerability Assessment Vulnerability assessment is the second step of flood- hazard assessment. It combines the floodplain boundary, generated through hazard identification, with an inventory of the property within the floodplain. Understanding the population and property exposed to natural hazards will assist in reducing risk and preventing loss from future events. Because site - specific inventory data and inundation levels given for a particular flood event (10 -year, 25 -year, 50 -year, 100 -year, 500 -year) are not readily available, calculating a community's vulnerability to flood events is not straightforward. The amount of property in the floodplain, as well as the type and value of structures on those properties, should be calculated to provide a working estimate for potential flood losses. Risk Analysis Risk analysis is the third and most advanced phase of a hazard assessment. It builds upon the hazard identification and vulnerability assessment. A flood risk analysis for the City of Santa Monica should include two components: (1) the life and value of property that may incur losses from a flood event (defined through the vulnerability assessment); and (2) the number and type of flood events expected to occur overtime. Within the broad components of a risk analysis, it is possible to predict the severity of damage from a range of events. Flow velocity models can assist in predicting the amount of damage expected from different magnitudes of flood events. The data used to develop these models is based on hydrological analysis of landscape features. Changes in the landscape, often associated with human development, can alter the flow velocity and the severity of damage that can be expected from a flood event. Using GIS technology and flow velocity models, it is possible to map the damage that can be expected from flood events over time. It is also possible to pinpoint the effects of certain flood events on individual properties. At the time of publication of this plan, data was insufficient to conduct a risk analysis for flood events in the City of Santa Monica. However, the current mapping projects will result in better data that will assist in understanding risk. This plan includes recommendations for building partnerships that will support the development of a flood risk analysis in the City of Santa Monica. COMMUNITY FLOOD ISSUES What is Susceptible to Damage During a Flood Event? The largest impact on communities from flood events is the loss of life and property. During certain years, property losses resulting from flood damage are extensive. Development in the floodplains of the City of Santa Monica will continue to be at risk from flooding because flood damage occurs on a regular basis throughout the county. Property loss from floods strikes both private and public property. Losses in the City of Santa Monica over the past 25 years have totaled approximately $23,102. Property Loss Resulting from Flooding Events The type of property damage caused by flood events depends on the depth and velocity of the flood waters. Faster moving flood waters can wash buildings off their foundations and sweep cars downstream. Pipelines, bridges, and other infrastructure can be damaged when high waters combine with flood debris. Extensive damage can be caused by basement flooding and landslide damage related to soil saturation from flood events. Most flood damage is caused by water saturating materials susceptible to loss (i.e., wood, insulation, wallboard, fabric, furnishings, floor coverings, and appliances). In many cases, flood damage to homes renders them unlivable. 95 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Businesslindustry Flood events impact businesses by damaging property and by interrupting business. Flood events can cut off customer access to a business as well as close a business for repairs. A quick response to the needs of businesses affected by flood events can help a community maintain economic vitality in the face of flood damage. Responses to business damages can include funding to assist owners in elevating or relocating flood -prone business structures. Public Infrastructure Publicly owned facilities are a key component of daily life for all citizens of the county. Damage to public water and sewer systems, transportation networks, flood control facilities, emergency facilities, and offices can hinder the ability of the government to deliver services. Government can take action to reduce risk to public infrastructure from flood events, as well as craft public policy that reduces risk to private property from flood events. Roads /Highways During natural hazard events, or any type of emergency or disaster, dependable road connections are critical for providing emergency services. Roads systems in the City of Santa Monica are maintained by multiple jurisdictions. Federal, state, county, and city governments all have a stake in protecting roads from flood damage. Road networks often traverse floodplain and floodway areas. Transportation agencies responsible for road maintenance are typically aware of roads at risk from flooding. Bridges Bridges are key points of concern during flood events because they are important links in road networks, river crossings, and they can be obstructions in watercourses, inhibiting the flow of water during flood events. The bridges in the City of Santa Monica are state, county, city, or privately owned. A state - designated inspector must inspect all state, county, and city bridges every two years; but private bridges are not inspected, and can be very dangerous. The inspections are rigorous, looking at everything from seismic capability to erosion and scour. Dam /Flood Control Channels No dam /flood control channels exist in Santa Monica. Portions of the City may be subject to flooding, due to flash flooding, urban flooding (storm drain failure /infrastructure breakdown), river channel overflow, downstream flooding, etc.) The City has not historically been vulnerable to storm surge inundation associated with hurricanes and tropical storms. Stone Canyon Reservoir The Stone Canyon Reservoir is located in the City of Los Angeles. There is a likelihood that the 10,370 acre feet capacity Stone Canyon Reservoir above the City of Brentwood would rupture in a major earthquake, inundating Brentwood and portions of West Los Angeles, and depositing no less than several inches of water on the northeast portion of Santa Monica. Riviera Reservoir The Riviera Reservoir, 1252 Capri, Los Angeles, is owned by the City of Santa Monica and located about two miles north of the City in Santa Monica Canyon. The California Department of Water Resources Bulletin No.17 lists the reservoir as having a height of 40 feet and a storage capacity of 76 acre -feet, which translates to approximately 25 million gallons. The Riviera Reservoir is an off - stream, covered storage reservoir built with vertical concrete walls. These walls are keyed top and bottom to the roof and foundations. The north and west sidewalls on the south and east have compacted backfill in front of them. These are the sides through which water will pass should a failure occur. If the failure were to occur on the east side, the structures, located at the Riviera Golf Course, immediately below the dam will definitely be in jeopardy. If the south side of the dam were to fail, no structures would be harmed. However, the golf course would be flooded. 96 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 Flood waters released during the reservoir failure would empty onto the Riviera Country Golf Course, eventually flowing into the Santa Monica Creek. The flood control channels will contain the flood waters directing them to the Pacific Ocean. Santa Monica Creek located in the City of Los Angeles, is dry the majority of the time and is not likely to be carrying flow at a time when the reservoir might fail. Damage to any homes adjacent to the golf course is considered unlikely. The travel time of the flood flows to the flood control channel would be within 15 minutes. Stormwater Stormwater, which is more accurately called urban runoff, consists of rainwater as well as runoff draining to city streets generated by irrigation, car washing or the hosing down of streets and sidewalks. The majority of this urban runoff in Santa Monica drains untreated into Santa Monica Bay via an underground storm drain system. This system consists of 2,308 catch basins and 64 storm drain lines which discharge at five outfalls within the city limits. The largest of these is located on the beach at Pico Boulevard and is known as the Pico - Kenter outfall. In addition to runoff from Santa Monica, this outfall also discharges runoff from parts of Brentwood and West Los Angeles. The other four outfalls are located on the beach at Montana Avenue, Wilshire Boulevard, the Santa Monica Pier, and Ashland Avenue. The Montana and Wilshire outfalls typically only discharge runoff to the ocean during heavy rains. The remaining three outfalls discharge year- round, during wet and dry periods. Under the federal Clean Water Act (CWA) the City is responsible for the quality of the urban runoff entering the storm drain system and for the enforcement and implementation of Local, State and Federal stormwater regulations. City oversight of stormwater programs and operation and maintenance of the stormwater system is coordinated by the Department of Environmental and Public Works Management, The City is responsible for the operation and maintenance of 824 catch basins and approximately 20 miles of storm drain lines. The remainder of the catch basins and storm drains within the city are owned and maintained by Los Angeles County. The CWA and the California Ocean Plan are the primary mechanisms through which pollutant discharges to water bodies are regulated in California. The CWA established minimum national water quality goals and created the National Pollutant Discharge Elimination System ( NPDES) to regulate the quality of discharged water. As of 1990 all municipal stormwater runoff became regulated under the NPDES system. The City of Santa Monica is currently a co- permittee with all other cities in Los Angeles County on the County's NPDES permit which was issued in 1990. Under this permit all co- permittees were required to develop a stormwater management plan which includes implementation of 13 baseline best management practices (BMPs) related to stormwater. These BMPs include: (1) catch basin labeling, (2) institution of a public reporting program, (3) implementation of a municipal runoff control ordinance, (4) development of public education material, (5) catch basin cleaning, (6) encourage increased trash receptacle usage, (7) increased street sweeping, (8) discourage improper litter disposal, (9) inspection of restaurants and automobile facilities, (10) encourage residents to remove dirt, rubbish and debris from sidewalks, (11) establish a recycling program, (12) motivate residents to properly dispose of hazardous waste, and (13) encourage water conservation. To date Santa Monica has met all of its compliance deadlines for implementation of these BMPs. The Los Angeles Regional Water Quality Control Board (RWQCB) recently completed a comprehensive revision of the NPDES permit for the Los Angeles region. This revised permit was approved in July 1996. The permit revision was undertaken due to a perceived need to toughen existing standards because compliance with the existing permit had been inconsistent throughout the region. The revised permit is more comprehensive and specific than the previous permit and requires the City to conduct additional employee education and institute a construction -site inspection program to help mitigate construction - related stormwater impacts. Wastewater Wastewater (or "sewage ") generated by Santa Monica's residential, commercial and industrial water users flows through underground sewer lines to the City of Los Angeles' Hyperion Treatment Plant, located approximately 7 miles southeast of Santa Monica in Playa del Rey. There the wastewater is screened, settled, and biologically treated before being discharged into Santa Monica Bay. Santa Monica pays a fee to Los Angeles for disposal of its wastewater based on the monthly effluent flows to the treatment plant. There are approximately 125 miles of sewer lines within the city limits. They are owned 97 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 by Santa Monica and are inspected and maintained by the City's Environmental and Public Works Management Department. Permitting and inspection of commercial and industrial wastewater generators is overseen by the department's Industrial Waste Division. Santa Monica's sewer system is completely separate from the stormwater system with only the wastewater being treated before it enters the Bay. FLOOD RESOURCE DIRECTORY The following resource directory lists the resources and programs that can assist county communities and organizations. The resource directory will provide contact information for local, county, regional state and federal programs that deal with natural hazards. County Resources Los Angeles County Public Works Department 900 S. Fremont Ave. Alhambra, CA 91803 Ph: 626- 458 -5100 Sanitation Districts of Los Angeles County 1955 Workman Mill Road Whittier, CA 90607 Ph: 562-699-7411 x2301 State Resources Governor's Office of Emergency Services (OES) P.O. Box 41 9047 Rancho Cordova, CA 95741 -9047 Ph: 916 845 - 8911 Fx: 916 845- 8910 ( California Resources Agency 1416 Ninth Street, Suite 1311 Sacramento, CA 95814 Ph: 916-653-5656 California Department of Water Resources (DWR) 1416 9th Street Sacramento, CA 95814 Ph: 916- 653 -6192 California Department of Conservation: Southern California Regional Office 655 S. Hope Street, #700 Los Angeles, CA 90017 -2321 Ph: 213- 239 -0878 Fx: 213- 239 -0984 Federal Resources and Programs Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) FEMA provides maps of flood hazard areas, various publications related to flood mitigation, funding for flood mitigation projects, and technical assistance, FEMA also operates the National Flood Insurance Program. FEMA' s mission is to reduce loss of life and property and protect the nation's critical infrastructure from all types of hazards through a comprehensive, risk - based, emergency management program of mitigation, preparedness, response and recovery. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Region IX 1111 Broadway, Suite 1200 Oakland, CA 94607 Ph: 510-627-7100 98 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Fx: 510- 627 -7112 Federal Emergency Management Agency, Mitigation Division 500 C Street, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20472 Ph: 202 - 566 -1600 FEMA' s List of Flood Related Websites This site contains a long list of flood related Internet sites from "American Heritage Rivers" to "The Weather Channel" and is a good starting point for flood information on the Internet. Contact: Federal Emergency Management Agency, Phone: (800) 480 -2520 Website: http: / /www.fema.gov /nfip /related.htm National Floodplain Insurance Program (NFIP) 500 C Street, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20472 Ph: 202 -566 -1600 The Floodplain Management Association The Floodplain Management website was established by the Floodplain Management Association (FMA) to serve the entire floodplain management community. It includes full -text articles, a calendar of upcoming events, a list of positions available, an index of publications available free or at nominal cost, a list of associations, a list of firms and consultants in Floodplain management, an index of newsletters dealing with flood issues (with hypertext links if available), a section on the basics of Floodplain management, a list of frequently asked questions (FAQs) about the Website, and a catalog of Web links. Floodplain Management Association P.O. Box 50891 Sparks, NV 89435 -0891 Ph: 775 - 626 -6389 Fx: 775 - 626 -6389 The Association of State Floodplain Managers The Association of State Floodplain Managers is an organization of professionals involved in Floodplain management, flood hazard mitigation, the National Flood Insurance Program, and flood preparedness, warning, and recovery. ASFPM fosters communication among those responsible for flood hazard activities, provides technical advice to governments and other entities about proposed actions or policies that will affect flood hazards, and encourages flood hazard research, education, and training. The ASFPM Web site includes information on how to become a member, the organization's constitution and bylaws, directories of officers and committees, a publications list, information on upcoming conferences, a history of the association, and other useful information. Contact: The Association of State Floodplain Managers Address: 2809 Fish Hatchery Road, Madison, WI 53713 Phone: (608) 274 -0123 Website: http: / /www.floods.org National Weather Service The National Weather Service provides flood watches, warnings, and informational statements in the City of Santa Monica. National Weather Service 520 North Elevar Street Oxnard, CA 93030 Ph: 805 -988- 6615 99 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Office of Hydrology, National Weather Service The National Weather Service s Office of Hydrology (OH) and its Hydrological Information Center offer information on floods and other aquatic disasters, This site offers current and historical data including an archive of past flood summaries, information on current hydrologic conditions, water supply outlooks, an Automated Local Flood Warning Systems Handbook, Natural Disaster Survey Reports, and other scientific publications on hydrology and flooding. National Weather Service, Office of Hydrologic Development 1325 East West Highway, SSMC2 Silver Spring, MD 20910 Ph: 301-713-1658 Fx: 301 - 713 -0963 Resources Conservation Service (NRCS), US Department of Agriculture NRCS provides a suite of federal programs designed to assist state and local governments and landowners in mitigating the impacts of flood events. The Watershed Surveys and Planning Program and the Small Watershed Program provide technical and financial assistance to help participants solve natural resource and related economic problems on a watershed basis. The Wetlands Reserve Program and the Flood Risk Reduction Program provide financial incentives to landowners to put aside land that is either a wetland resource, or that experiences frequent flooding. The Emergency Watershed Protection Program (EWP) provides technical and financial assistance to clear debris from clogged waterways, restore vegetation, and stabilizing riverbanks. The measures taken under EWP must be environmentally and economically sound and generally benefit more than one property. National Resources Conservation Service 14th and Independence Ave., SW, Room 5105 -A Washington, DC 20250 Ph: 202 - 720 -7246 Fx: 202 - 720 -7690 USGS Water Resources This web page offers current US water news; extensive current (including real -time) and historical water data; numerous fact sheets and other publications; various technical resources; descriptions of ongoing water survey programs; local water information; and connections to other sources of water information. USGS Water Resources 6000 J Street Placer Hall Sacramento, CA 95819 -6129 Ph: 916- 278 -3000 Fx: 916- 278 -3070 Bureau of Reclamation The mission of the Bureau of Reclamation is to manage, develop, and protect water and related resources in an environmentally and economically sound manner in the interest of the American public. The Bureau provides leadership and technical expertise in water resources development and in the efficient use of water through initiatives including conservation, reuse, and research. It protects the public and the environment through the adequate maintenance and appropriate operation of Reclamation's facilities and manages Reclamation's facilities to fulfill water user contracts and protect and /or enhance conditions for fish, wildlife, land, and cultural resources. Mid Pacific Regional Office Federal Office Building 2800 Cottage Way Sacramento CA 95825 -1898 100 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Ph: 916- 978 -5000 Fax 916- 978 -5599 http://www.usbr.gov/ Army Corps of Engineers The Corps of Engineers administers a permit program to ensure that the nation's waterways are used in the public interest. Any person, firm, or agency planning to work in waters of the United States must first obtain a permit from the Army Corps of Engineers. The Corps is responsible for the protection and development of the nation's water resources, including navigation, flood control, energy production through hydropower management, water supply storage and recreation. US Army Corps of Engineers P.O. Box 532711 Los Angeles CA 90053- 2325 Ph: 213 -452- 3921 American Public Works Association 2345 Grand Boulevard, Suite 500 Kansas City, MO 64108 -2641 Ph: 816-472-6100 Fx: 816 - 472 -1610 Publications NFIP Community Rating System Coordinator's Manual Indianapolis, IN. This informative brochure explains how the Community Rating System works and what the benefits are to communities. It explains in detail the CRS point system, and what activities communities can pursue to earn points. These points then add up to the "rating" for the community, and flood insurance premium discounts are calculated based upon that "rating " The brochure also provides a table on the percent discount realized for each rating (1 -10). Instructions on how to apply to be a CRS community are also included. Contact: NFIP Community Rating System Phone: (800) 480 -2520 or (317) 848 -2898 Website: http: / /www.fema.gov /nfip /crs Floodplain Management: A Local Floodplain Administrator's Guide to the NFIP This document discusses Floodplain processes and terminology. It contains Floodplain management and mitigation strategies, as well as information on the NFIP, CRS, Community Assistance Visits, and floodplain development standards. Contact: National Flood Insurance Program Phone: (800) 480 -2520 Website: http: / /www.fema,gov /nfip/ Flood Hazard Mitigation Planning: A Community Guide, (June 1997). Massachusetts Department of Environmental Management. This informative guide offers a 10 -step process for successful flood hazard mitigation. Steps include: map hazards, determine potential damage areas, take an inventory of facilities in the flood zone, determine what is or is not being done about flooding, identify gaps in protection, brainstorm alternatives and actions, determine feasible actions, coordinate with others, prioritize actions, develop strategies for implementation, and adopt and monitor the plan. Contact: Massachusetts Flood Hazard Management Program Phone: (617) 626 -1250 Website: http : / /wvvw.magnetstate.ma.us /dem /programs /mitigate Reducing Losses in High Risk Flood Hazard Areas: A Guidebook for Local Officials, (February 1987), FEMA -116. 101 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 This guidebook offers a table on actions that communities can take to reduce flood losses. It also offers a table with sources for floodplain mapping assistance for the various types of flooding hazards. There is information on various types of flood hazards with regard to existing mitigation efforts and options for action (policy and programs, mapping, regulatory, nonregulatory). Types of flooding which are covered include alluvial fan, areas behind levees, areas below unsafe dams, coastal flooding, flash floods, fluctuating lake level floods, ground failure triggered by earthquakes, ice jam flooding, and mudslides. Contact: Federal Emergency Management Agency Phone: (800) 480 -2520 Website: http: / /www.fema.gov Endnotes 1. http: / /www.lalc.kl2.ca.us/ target /units /river /tour /hist.htmi 2. Gumprecht, Blake, 1999, Johns Hopkins University Press, Baltimore, MD. 3. Ibid 4. http: / /www.usc.edu /isd /archives / la/scandals /st_francis_dam.html 5. http://www.latimes.com/ news /local/ surroundings/ la- mesurroundl1dec11 ,0,1754871.story ?call =la- adelphia- right -rail 6. http:// www. fema. gov /rrr /taikdiz/landslide.shtm# 102 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Table of Contents Why Are Tsunamis a Threat to Southern California? ....... ............................... ............................104 WhatAre Tsunamis? ......................................................... ............................... ............................104 WhatCauses Tsunamis? .................................................. ............................... ............................104 TsunamiCharacteristics .................................................... ............................... ............................105 Historyof Regional Tsunamis ........................................... ............................... ............................107 Tsunami Hazard Identification .......................................... ............................... ............................107 Tsunami Watches and Warnings ...................................... ............................... ............................109 Community Tsunami Issues. ........................................... ............................... ........................ 111 Existing Tsunami Mitigation Activities ........................................................... ............................... 111 TsunamiResource Directory ............................................. ............................... ............................112 103 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 WHY ARE TSUNAMIS A THREAT TO SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA? History has shown that the probability of a tsunami in the City of Santa Monica is an extremely low threat. However, if a tsunami should occur, the consequences would be great. As shown on the tsunami run -up map (Map 2.4.1), the entire City of Santa Monica coastline could be impacted. Thirty percent of the City's residents would have to be evacuated. The impact could cause loss of life, destroy thousands of high priced homes and greatly affect the City's downtown and coastal businesses, and impact tourism. Even if all residents and visitors were safely evacuated, the damage to property in this densely populated, high property value area would still be tremendous. California's Tsunamis "Since 1812, the California coast has had 14 tsunamis with wave heights higher than three feet; six of these were destructive. The Channel Islands were hit by a big tsunami in the early 1800s. The worst tsunami resulted from the 1964 Alaskan earthquake and caused 12 deaths and at least $17 million in damages in northern California. ,41 WHAT ARE TSUNAMIS? The phenomenon we call "tsunami" (soo- NAH -mee) is a series of traveling ocean waves of extremely long length generated primarily by earthquakes occurring below or near the ocean floor. Underwater volcanic eruptions and landslides can also generate tsunamis. In the deep ocean, the tsunami waves move across the deep ocean with a speed exceeding 500 miles per hour, and a wave height of only a few inches. Tsunami waves are distinguished from ordinary ocean waves by their great length between wave crests, often exceeding 60 miles or more in the deep ocean, and by the time between these crests, ranging from 10 minutes to an hour. As they reach the shallow waters of the coast, the waves slow down and the water can pile up into a wall of destruction up to 30 feet or more in height. The effect can be amplified where a bay, harbor or lagoon funnels the wave as it moves inland. Large tsunamis have been known to rise over 100 feet. Even a tsunami 1 -3 feet high can be very destructive and cause many deaths and injuries. WHAT CAUSES TSUNAMI? There are many causes of tsunamis but the most prevalent is earthquakes. In addition, landslides, volcanic eruptions, explosions, and even the impact of cosmic bodies, such as meteorites, can generate tsunamis. Plate Tectonics Plate Tectonic theory is based on an earth model characterized by a small number of lithospheric plates, 40 to 150 miles thick, which float on a viscous under -layer called the asthenosphere. These plates, which cover the entire surface of the earth and contain both the continents and sea floor, move relative to each other at rates of up to several inches per year. The region where two plates come in contact is called a plate boundary, and the way in which one plate moves relative to another determines the type of boundary: spreading, where the two plates move away from each other; subduction, where the two plates move toward each other and one slides beneath the other; and transform, where the two plates slide horizontally past each other. Subduction zones are characterized by deep ocean trenches, and the volcanic islands or volcanic mountain chains associated with the many subduction zones around the Pacific Rim are sometimes called the Ring of Fire. Earthquakes and Tsunamis An earthquake can be caused by volcanic activity, but most are generated by movements along fault zones associated with the plate boundaries. Most strong earthquakes, representing 80% of the total energy released worldwide by earthquakes, occur in subduction zones where an oceanic plate slides 41, http:// education. sdse. edidoptiputedh tin]Links /califomia_tsunam i.hlml 104 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 under a continental plate or another younger oceanic plate. Not all earthquakes generate tsunamis. To generate a tsunami, the fault where the earthquake occurs must be underneath or near the ocean, and cause vertical movement of the sea floor over a large area, hundreds or thousands of square miles. "By far, the most destructive tsunamis are generated from large, shallow earthquakes with an epicenter or fault line near or on the ocean floor. A' The amount of vertical and horizontal motion of the sea floor, the area over which it occurs, the simultaneous occurrence of slumping of underwater sediments due to the shaking, and the efficiency with which energy is transferred from the earth's crust to the ocean water are all part of the tsunami generation mechanism. The sudden vertical displacements over such large areas, disturb the ocean's surface, displace water, and generate destructive tsunami waves 43 Although all oceanic regions of the world can experience tsunamis, the most destructive and repeated occurrences of tsunamis are in the Pacific Rim region. Tsunami Earthquakes The September 2, 1992 earthquake (magnitude 7.2) was barely felt by residents along the coast of Nicaragua. Located well off - shore, the severity of shaking on a scale of I to XII, was mostly II along the coast, and reached III at only a few places. Twenty to 70 minutes after the earthquake occurred, a tsunami struck the coast of Nicaragua with wave amplitudes up to 13 feet above normal sea level in most places and a maximum run -up height of 35 ft. The waves caught coastal residents by complete surprise and caused many casualties and considerable property damage. This tsunami was caused by a tsunami earthquake, an earthquake that produces an unusually large tsunami relative to the earthquake magnitude. Tsunami earthquakes are characterized by a very shallow focus, fault dislocations greater than several meters, and fault surfaces that are smaller than for a normal earthquake. Tsunami earthquakes are also slow earthquakes, with slippage along the fault beneath the sea floor occurring more slowly than it would in a normal earthquake. The only known method to quickly recognize a tsunami earthquake is to estimate a parameter called the seismic moment using very long period seismic waves (more than 50 seconds /cycle). Two other destructive and deadly tsunamis from tsunami earthquakes have occurred in recent years in Java, Indonesia (June 2, 1994) and Peru (February 21, 1996). "Less frequently, tsunami waves can be generated from displacements of water resulting from rock falls, icefalls and sudden submarine landslides or slumps. Such events may be caused impulsively from the instability and sudden failure of submarine slopes, which are sometimes triggered by the ground motions of a strong earthquake. For example in the 1980's, earth moving and construction work of an airport runway along the coast of Southern France, triggered an underwater landslide, which generated destructive tsunami waves in the harbor of Thebes .,,44 TSUNAMI CHARACTERISTICS How Fast? Unnoticed tsunami waves can travel at the speed of a commercial jet plane, over 500 miles per hour. They can move from one side of the Pacific Ocean to the other in less than a day. This great speed makes it important to be aware of the tsunami as soon as it is generated. Scientists can predict when a tsunami will arrive at various places by knowing the source characteristics of the earthquake that generated the tsunami and the characteristics of the sea floor along the paths to those places. Tsunamis 42, httn //ww� v.prii.iioaa.gov/itic/library /about is Aios ht 1 #1 43, Ibid 44. Ibid 105 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 travel much slower in more shallow coastal waters where their wave heights begin to increase dramatically. How Big? Offshore and coastal features can determine the size and impact of tsunami waves. Reefs, bays, entrances to rivers, undersea features and the slope of the beach all help to modify the tsunami as it attacks the coastline. When the tsunami reaches the coast and moves inland, the water level can rise many feet. In extreme cases, water level has risen to more than 50 feet for tsunamis of distant origin and over 100 feet for tsunami waves generated near the earthquake's epicenter. The first wave may not be the largest in the series of waves. One coastal community may see no damaging wave activity while in another nearby community destructive waves can be large and violent. The flooding can extend inland by 1000 feet or more, covering large expanses of land with water and debris. How Frequent? Since scientists cannot predict when earthquakes will occur, they cannot determine exactly when a tsunami will be generated. However, by looking at past historical tsunamis and run -up maps, scientists know where tsunamis are most likely to be generated. Past tsunami height measurements are useful in predicting future tsunami impact and flooding limits at specific coastal locations and communities. TYPES OF TSUNAMIS Pacific -wide and Regional Tsunamis Tsunamis can be categorized as "local" and Pacific -wide. Typically, a Pacific -wide tsunami is generated by major vertical ocean bottom movement in offshore deep trenches. A "local" tsunami can be a component of the Pacific -wide tsunami in the area of the earthquake or a wave that is confined to the area of generation within a bay or harbor and caused by movement of the bay itself or landslides. The last large tsunami that caused widespread death and destruction throughout the Pacific was generated by an earthquake located off the coast of Chile in 1960. It caused loss of life and property damage not only along the Chile coast but also in Hawaii and as far away as Japan. The Great Alaskan Earthquake of 1964 killed 106 people and produced deadly tsunami waves in Alaska, Oregon and California. In July 1993, a tsunami generated in the Sea of Japan killed over 120 people in Japan. Damage also occurred in Korea and Russia but spared other countries since the tsunami wave energy was confined within the Sea of Japan. The 1993 Japan Sea tsunami is known as a "regional event" since its impact was confined to a relatively small area. For people living along the northwestern coast of Japan, the tsunami waves followed the earthquake within a few minutes. During the 1990's, destructive regional tsunamis also occurred in Nicaragua, Indonesia, the Philippines, Papua New Guinea, and Peru, killing thousands of people. Others caused property damage in Chile and Mexico. Some damage also occurred in the far field in the Marquesas Islands (French Polynesia) from the July 30, 1995, Chilean and February 21, 1996, Peruvian tsunamis. In less than a day, tsunamis can travel from one side of the Pacific to the other. However, people living near areas where large earthquakes occur may find that the tsunami waves will reach their shores within minutes of the earthquake. For these reasons, the tsunami threat to many areas such as Alaska, the Philippines, Japan and the United States West Coast can be immediate (for tsunamis from nearby earthquakes which take only a few minutes to reach coastal areas) or less urgent (for tsunamis from distant earthquakes which take from three to 22 hours to reach coastal areas). 106 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 WHY ARE EARTHQUAKES A THREAT TO THE CITY OF SANTA MONICA Historical and geological records show that California has a long history of seismic events. Southern California is probably best known for the San Andreas Fault, a 400 mile long fault running from the Mexican border to a point offshore, west of San Francisco. "Geologic studies show that over the past 1,400 to 1,500 years large earthquakes have occurred at about 130 year intervals on the southern San Andreas fault. As the last large earthquake on the southern San Andreas occurred in 1857, that section of the fault is considered a likely location for an earthquake within the next few decades. "' But San Andreas is only one of dozens of known earthquake faults that criss -cross Southern California. Some of the better known faults include the Newport- Inglewood, Whittier, Chatsworth, Elsinore, Hollywood, Los Alamitos, and Palos Verdes faults. Beyond the known faults, there are a potentially large number of "blind" faults that underlie the surface of Southern California. One such blind fault was involved in the Whittier Narrows earthquake in October 1987. Although the most famous of the faults, the San Andreas, is capable of producing an earthquake with a magnitude of 8+ on the Richter scale, some of the "lesser" faults have the potential to inflict greater damage on the urban core of the Los Angeles Basin. Seismologists believe that a 6.0 earthquake on the Newport- Inglewood would result in far more death and destruction than a "great' quake on the San Andreas, because the San Andreas is relatively remote from the urban centers of Southern California. For decades, partnerships have flourished between the USGS, Cal Tech, the California Geological Survey and universities,to share research and educational efforts with Californians. Tremendous earthquake mapping and mitigation efforts have been made in California in the past two decades, and public awareness has risen remarkably during this time. Major federal, state, and local government agencies and private organizations support earthquake risk reduction, and have made significant contributions in reducing the adverse impacts of earthquakes. Despite the progress, the majority of California communities remain unprepared because there is a general lack of understanding regarding earthquake hazards among Californians. As experienced in the Northridge earthquake, a major earthquake occurring in or near the City of Santa Monica may cause many deaths and casualties, extensive property damage, fires and hazardous material spills and other ensuing hazards. The effects could be aggravated by aftershocks and by the secondary effects of fire, hazardous material /chemical accidents and possible failure of the waterways and dams. The time of day and season of the year would have a profound effect on the number of dead and injured and the amount of property damage sustained. Such an earthquake would be catastrophic in its affect upon the population and could exceed the response capabilities of the individual cities, Los Angeles County Operational Area and the State of California Emergency Services. Damage control and disaster relief support would be required from other local governmental and private organizations, and from the state and federal governments. Extensive search and rescue operations would be required to assist trapped or injured persons. Emergency medical care, food and temporary shelter could be required by injured or displaced persons. Identification and burial of many dead persons would pose difficult problems; public health would be a major concern. Mass evacuation may be essential to save lives, particularly in areas downwind from hazardous material releases. Many families would be separated particularly if the earthquake should occur during working hours. Emergency operations could be seriously hampered by the loss of communications and damage to transportation routes within, and to and from, the disaster area and by the disruption of public utilities and services. The economic impact on the City of Santa Monica from a major earthquake would be considerable in terms of loss of employment and loss of tax base. Also, a major earthquake could cause serious damage and /or outage of computer facilities. The loss of such facilities could curtail or seriously disrupt the http: / /pubs.usgs.gov /gip /earthg3 /when. hhn I 50 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 operations of banks, insurance companies and other elements of the financial community. In turn, this could affect the ability of local government, business and the population to make payments and purchases. Table 2.1.1 Earthquake Events in the Southern California Region Source: http: / /geology.about.com /gi/ dynamic /offsite.htm ?site = http %3A ° / 2F %2Fpasadena.wr.usgs .gov %2Finfo %2Fcahist_egs.html http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/statesthistorical.php/ To better understand the earthquake hazard, the scientific community has looked at historical records and accelerated research on those faults that are the sources of the earthquakes occurring in the Southern California region. Historical earthquake records can generally be divided into records of the pre - instrumental period and the instrumental period. In the absence of instrumentation, the detection earthquakes is based on observations and felt reports, and are dependent upon population density and distribution. Since California was sparsely populated in the 1800s, the detection of pre - instrumental earthquakes is relatively difficult. However, two very large earthquakes, the Fort Tejon in 1857 (7.9) and the Owens Valley in 1872 (7.6) are evidence of the tremendously damaging potential of earthquakes in Southern California. In more recent times two 7.3 earthquakes struck Southern California, in Kern County (1952) and Landers (1992). The damage from these four large earthquakes was limited because the occurred in areas which were sparsely populated at the time they happened. The seismic risk is much 51 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Southern California Region Earthquakes with a Magnitude 5.0 or Greater 1769 Los Angeles Basin 1918 San Jacinto 1800 San Diego Region 1923 San Bernardino Region 1812 Wrightwood 1925 Santa Barbara 1812 Santa Barbara Channel 1933 Long Beach 1827 Los Angeles Region 1941 Carpenteria 1855 Los Angeles Region 1952 Kern County 1857 Great Fort Tejon Earthquake 1954 W. of Wheeler Ridge 1858 San Bernardino Region 1971 San Fernando 1862 San Diego Region 1973 Point Mugu 1892 San Jacinto or Elsinore Fault 1986 North Palm Springs 1893 Pico Canyon 1987 Whittier Narrows 1894 Lytle Creek Region 1992 Landers 1894 E. of San Diego 1992 Big Bear 1899 Lytle Creek Region 1994 Northridge 1899 San Jacinto and Hemet 1999 Hector Mine 1907 San Bernardino Region 2008 Chino Hills earthquake 1910 Glen Ivy Hot Springs 2014 Brea 1916 Tejon Pass Region Source: http: / /geology.about.com /gi/ dynamic /offsite.htm ?site = http %3A ° / 2F %2Fpasadena.wr.usgs .gov %2Finfo %2Fcahist_egs.html http://earthquake.usgs.gov/earthquakes/statesthistorical.php/ To better understand the earthquake hazard, the scientific community has looked at historical records and accelerated research on those faults that are the sources of the earthquakes occurring in the Southern California region. Historical earthquake records can generally be divided into records of the pre - instrumental period and the instrumental period. In the absence of instrumentation, the detection earthquakes is based on observations and felt reports, and are dependent upon population density and distribution. Since California was sparsely populated in the 1800s, the detection of pre - instrumental earthquakes is relatively difficult. However, two very large earthquakes, the Fort Tejon in 1857 (7.9) and the Owens Valley in 1872 (7.6) are evidence of the tremendously damaging potential of earthquakes in Southern California. In more recent times two 7.3 earthquakes struck Southern California, in Kern County (1952) and Landers (1992). The damage from these four large earthquakes was limited because the occurred in areas which were sparsely populated at the time they happened. The seismic risk is much 51 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 i i i more severe today than in the past because the population at risk is in the millions, rather than a few hundred or a few thousand persons. The City of Santa Monica is in the vicinity of several known active and potentially active earthquake faults including the San Andreas which lies approximately 40 miles east of Santa Monica, the San Jacinto, Santa Monica, Whittier - Elsinore, and the northeastern end of the Newport- Inglewood Fault Zone, the source of the 1933 Long Beach earthquake, that is located within the Los Angeles Metropolitan area. New faults within the region are continuously being discovered. Scientists have identified almost 100 faults in the Los Angeles area known to be capable of a magnitude 6.0 or greater earthquake. HISTORY OF EARTHQUAKE EVENTS IN SOUTHERN, CALIFORNIA Since seismologists started recording and measuring earthquakes, there have been tens of thousands of recorded earthquakes in Southern California, most with a magnitude below three. No community in Southern California is beyond the reach of a damaging earthquake. Table 2.1.1 describes the historical earthquake events that have affected Southern California. The 1994 Northridge Earthquake The January 17, 1994 magnitude 6.7 Northridge Earthquake (thrust fault), with its epicenter beneath Reseda, produced severe ground motions, caused 57 deaths, 9,253 injuries and left over 20,000 people displaced within the Los Angeles area. It was the most expensive disaster in the history of Santa Monica, which sustained more than $250 million in damage. More than 530 buildings, including 2,300 housing units, were red- or yellow- tagged, rendering them uninhabitable or with limited accessibility. An estimated 16,000 apartments, condominiums or houses sustained some damage and were green- tagged, or still inhabitable. Because of the severe damage in Santa Monica, city officials implemented a number of measures to expedite recovery efforts, including a streamlined permit process and fee waivers, as well as rent increases to cover earthquake repairs in rent - controlled buildings. Funds received from the Federal Emergency Management Agency included $93.4 million for home repairs, temporary housing, infrastructure repairs and retrofitting to help lessen the effects of future disasters. The earthquake affected almost every building on the Santa Monica College with an estimated $80 million spent on the recovery effort. Santa Monica Hospital Medical Center suffered significant damage leading to the hospital's partnership with UCLA. The hospital's pavilion and tower sustained about $15 million in immediate damage, forcing the tower's closure for nine months. All of the hospital's operations were consolidated into the pavilion. Saint John's Hospital's north wing, with its 185 beds, the hospital nursery and the neo -natal intensive care unit, sustained the most damage. Those beds and services were immediately evacuated and moved to other parts of the facility. The hospital stayed open for three days before it was forced to shut down completely because of the extensive damage. On October 3, 1994, Saint John's was fully operational minus its north wing, which was demolished. The cost of repairs totaled $32 million. In July 1998, Saint John's broke ground on a $271 million replacement project, scheduled to be finished by the year 2005. To help survive any future disasters, the new facility will have its own water supply, sewage system and communications backup system. By February 1999, 517 of the 530 buildings that were red- or yellow- tagged had been repaired or have repair permits. The city issued more than 3,400 repair permits for earthquake damaged properties. Fifty - three buildings were demolished because of catastrophic earthquake damage. Scientists have stated that such devastating shaking should be considered the norm near any large thrust earthquake. Recent reports from scientists of the U.S. Geological Survey and the Southern California 52 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Earthquake Center say that the Los Angeles Area could expect one earthquake every year of magnitude 5.0 or more for the foreseeable future. CAUSES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF EARTHQUAKES IN SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA EARTHQUAKE FAULTS A fault is a fracture along between blocks of the earth's crust where either side moves relative to the other along a parallel plane to the fracture. Strike -slip Strike -slip faults are vertical or almost vertical rifts where the earth's plates move mostly horizontally. From the observer's perspective, if the opposite block looking across the fault moves to the right, the slip style is called a right lateral fault; if the block moves left, the shift is called a left lateral fault. Dip -slip Dip -slip faults are slanted fractures where the blocks mostly shift vertically. If the earth above an inclined fault moves down, the fault is called a normal fault, but when the rock above the fault moves up, the fault is called a reverse fault. Thrust faults have a reverse fault with a dip of 45 ° or less. 53 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 111ap 2.1.1 Southern California Earthquake Fault Ma;�; COUNTY Fault Ma aoraus ner- au " or offshore escarpements KERN COUNTY LOS ANGEL COUNTY ® Los Angeles a In-d Ann 0 25 Miles RIVERSIDE COUNTY SAN DIEGt COUNTY 54 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 Dr. Kerry Sieh of Cal Tech has investigated the San Andreas fault at Pallett Creek. "The record at Pallett Creek shows that rupture has recurred about every 130 years, on average, over the past 1500 years. But actual intervals have varied greatly, from less than 50 years to more than 300. The physical cause of such irregular recurrence remains unknown." Z Damage from a great quake on the San Andreas would be widespread throughout Southern California. EARTHQUAKE RELATED HAZARDS Ground shaking, landslides, liquefaction, and amplification are the specific hazards associated with earthquakes. The severity of these hazards depends on several factors, including soil and slope conditions, proximity to the fault, earthquake magnitude, and the type of earthquake. Ground Shaking Ground shaking is the motion felt on the earth's surface caused by seismic waves generated by the earthquake. It is the primary cause of earthquake damage. The strength of ground shaking depends on the magnitude of the earthquake, the type of fault, and distance from the epicenter (where the earthquake originates). Buildings on poorly consolidated and thick soils will typically see more damage than buildings on consolidated soils and bedrock. Earthquake Induced Landslides Earthquake induced landslides are secondary earthquake hazards that occur from ground shaking. They can destroy the roads, buildings, utilities, and other critical facilities necessary to respond and recover from an earthquake. Many communities in Southern California have a high likelihood of encountering such risks, especially in areas with steep slopes. Liquefaction Liquefaction occurs when ground shaking causes wet granular soils to change from a solid state to a liquid state. This results in the loss of soil strength and the soil's ability to support weight. Buildings and their occupants are at risk when the ground can no longer support these buildings and structures. Many communities in Southern California are built on ancient river bottoms and have sandy soil. In some cases this ground may be subject to liquefaction, depending on the depth of the water table. Amplification Soils and soft sedimentary rocks near the earth's surface can modify ground shaking caused by earthquakes. One of these modifications is amplification. Amplification increases the magnitude of the seismic waves generated by the earthquake. The amount of amplification is influenced by the thickness of geologic materials and their physical properties. Buildings and structures built on soft and unconsolidated soils can face greater risk .3 Amplification can also occur in areas with deep sediment filled basins and on ridge tops. littp://Nw�v,gps.cittech.edu/—siclAioiiie,litnil 55 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Map 2.1.2 Seismic Zones in California Darker Shaded Areas indicate Greater Potential Shaking Source: USGS Website 56 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 EARTHQUAKE HAZARD ASSESSMENT Hazard Identification In California, many agencies are focused on seismic safety issues: the State's Seismic Safety Commission, the Applied Technology Council, Governor's Office of Emergency Services, United States Geological Survey, Cal Tech, the California Geological Survey as well as a number of universities and private foundations. These organizations, in partnership with other state and federal agencies, have undertaken a rigorous program in California to identify seismic hazards and risks including active fault identification, bedrock shaking, tsunami inundation zones, ground motion amplification, liquefaction, and earthquake induced landslides. Seismic hazard maps have been published and are available for many communities in California through the State Division of Mines and Geology. Map 2.1.1 illustrates the known earthquake faults in Southern California. Map 2.1.3 Faults, liquefaction Zones in Santa Monica Santa Monica Fault The Santa Monica fault is part of the Transverse Ranges Southern Boundary fault system, a west - trending system of reverse, oblique -slip, and strike -slip faults that extends for more than 200 km along the southern edge of the Transverse Ranges (Dolan et al., 1997, 2000a). Other faults in this system are the 57 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Hollywood and Raymond faults. The Anacapa -Dume, Malibu Coast, Santa Cruz Island, and Santa Rosa Island faults to the west are also part of this system. The Santa Monica fault extends east from the coastline in Pacific Palisades through Santa Monica and West Los Angeles and merges with the Hollywood fault at the West Beverly Hills Lineament in Beverly Hills, west of the crossing of Santa Monica Boulevard and Wilshire Boulevard, where its strike is northeast. Onshore, the fault offsets the surface 2 -3.5 km south of the Santa Monica Mountains range front.4 Map 2.1.4 Santa Monica Fault -- Earthquake Planning Scenario -- Peak Accel. Map (in %g) for Santa Monica M6.6 Scenario Scenario Dale: Mon Jul 16, 2001 05:00.00 AM PDT M 6.6 N34.03 W118.52 Depth: 13.0kar 34.6' 34' Santa Monica Fault PIANNING SCENARIOONLY - Piouewed: Lbn Jan 12, 200112:10:17 Pld PST TYPE OF FAULTING: left- reverse LENGTH: 24 km NEARBY COMMUNITIES: Pacific Palisades, Westwood, Beverly Hills, Santa Monica MOST RECENT SURFACE RUPTURE: Late Quaternary SLIP RATE: between 0.27 and 0.39 mm /yr INTERVAL BETWEEN MAJOR RUPTURES: unknown PROBABLE MAGNITUDES: Mw6.0 - 7.0 ( ?) OTHER NOTES: This is a north- dipping fault. Its slip rate may be greatest at its western ends Dolan et. aL, "Active Faults in the Los Angeles Metropolitan Region ", Southern California Earthquake Center Group C liUp: / /mvw. data. scec .org /fault index /n a ica.hhnl 58 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 In California, each earthquake is followed by revisions and improvements in the Building Codes. The 1933 Long Beach resulted in the Field Act, affecting school construction. The 1971 Sylmar earthquake brought another set of increased structural standards. Similar re- evaluations occurred after the 1989 Loma Prieta and 1994 Northridge earthquakes. These code changes have resulted in stronger and more earthquake resistant structures. The Alquist - Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act was passed in 1972 to mitigate the hazard of surface faulting to structures for human occupancy. This state law was a direct result of the 1971 San Fernando Earthquake, which was associated with extensive surface fault ruptures that damaged numerous homes, commercial buildings, and other structures. Surface rupture is the most easily avoided seismic hazard.' The Seismic Hazards Mapping Act, passed in 1990, addresses non - surface fault rupture earthquake hazards, including liquefaction and seismically induced landslides.' The State Department of Conservation operates the Seismic Mapping Program for California. Extensive information is available at theirwebsite: http: / /gmw.consrv.ca.gov /shmp /index.htm Vulnerability Assessment The effects of earthquakes span a large area, and large earthquakes occurring in many parts of the Southern California region would probably be felt throughout the region. However, the degree to which the earthquakes are felt, and the damages associated with them may vary. At risk from earthquake damage are large stocks of old buildings and bridges: many high tech and hazardous materials facilities: extensive sewer, water, and natural gas pipelines; earth dams; petroleum pipelines; and other critical facilities and private property located in the county. The relative or secondary earthquake hazards, which are liquefaction, ground shaking, amplification, and earthquake- induced landslides, can be just as devastating as the earthquake. The California Geological Survey has identified areas most vulnerable to liquefaction. Liquefaction occurs when ground shaking causes wet granular soils to change from a solid state to a liquid state. This results in the loss of soil strength and the soil's ability to support weight. Buildings and their occupants are at risk when the ground can no longer support these buildings and structures. Map 2.1.3 identifies the local population centers in City of Santa Monica that have soils vulnerable to liquefaction. Southern California has many active landslide areas, and a large earthquake could trigger accelerated movement in these slide areas, in addition to jarring loose other unknown areas of landslide risk. Risk Analysis Risk analysis is the third phase of a hazard assessment. Risk analysis involves estimating the damage and costs likely to be experienced in a geographic area over a period of time' . Factors included in assessing earthquake risk include population and property distribution in the hazard area, the frequency of earthquake events, landslide susceptibility, buildings, infrastructure, and disaster preparedness of the region. This type of analysis can generate estimates of the damages to the region due to an earthquake event in a specific location. FEMA's software program, HAZUS, uses mathematical formulas and information about building stock, local geology and the location and size of potential earthquakes, economic data, and other information to estimate losses from a potential earthquake.9 The HAZUS software is available from FEMA at no cost. For greater Southern California there are multiple worst case scenarios, depending on which fault might rupture, and which communities are in proximity to the fault. But damage will not necessarily be limited to 6 http:/ /aww.consrv.ca.gov /CGS/rgimn/ap/ 7 Jbid s Burby, R. (Ed.) Cooperating with Nature: Confronting Natural Hazards with Land Use Planning for Sustainable Communities (1998), Washington D.C., Joseph Henry Press. FEMA HAZUS http: //mvw. fcma.gov /liazusPoazus2.iitin (May 2001). 59 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 51912014 immediately adjoining communities. Depending on the hypocenter of the earthquake, seismic waves may be transmitted through the ground to unsuspecting communities. In the Northridge 1994 earthquake, Santa Monica suffered extensive damage, even though there was a range of mountains between it and the origin of the earthquake. Damages for a large earthquake almost anywhere in Southern California are likely to run into the billions of dollars. Although building codes are some of the most stringent in the world, tens of thousands of older existing buildings were built under much less rigid codes. Most of the Santa Monica unreinforced masonry buildings (URM's) have been retrofitted and the remaining URMs will be noticed soon for retrofit as part of the Seismic Safety Survey. Non - structural bracing of equipment and contents is often the most cost - effective type of seismic mitigation. Inexpensive bracing and anchoring may be the most cost effective way to protect expensive equipment. Non - structural bracing of equipment and furnishings will also reduce the chance of injury for the occupants of a building. COMMUNITY EARTHQUAKE ISSUES What is Susceptible to Earthquakes? Earthquake damage occurs because humans have built structures that cannot withstand severe shaking. Buildings, airports, schools, and lifelines (highways and utility lines) suffer damage in earthquakes and can cause death or injury to humans. The welfare of homes, major businesses, and public infrastructure is very important. Addressing the reliability of buildings, critical facilities, and infrastructure, and understanding the potential costs to government, businesses, and individuals as a result of an earthquake, are challenges faced by the city. Maps 2.1.5 and 2.1.6 identify residential and commercial building count of buildings at the census block level for the City of Santa Monica that vulnerable to earthquake damage. 60 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Map 2.1.5 Santa Monica Commercial Building Count Santa Monica, CA - -- City Limits HAZUS Building Counts Commercial Typo 1 10- 16 10 -22 M22-28 28-34 34.40 40 -43 td HAZUS Level 1 Analysis Historic Event Scenario Jan. 17th, 1994 8.4 Magnitude Quake Located North of City 34.21 - 118.537 0 0.25 0.5 Mites ®Yf �uf1!Pssmnoxs 61 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Map 2.1.6 Santa Monica Residential Building Count Santa Monica, CA --- City I.I.R. HAZUS Building Counts Residential Type 1 M] 69 -315 IM 316-561 562 - 607 808 -1,053 1,054 -1,299 1,300 - 1,543 r � r",I1 HAZUS Level t Analysts Historic Event Scenario Jan. 17th, 1994 6.4 Magnitude Quake Located North of City 34.21 - 118.537 0 0.25 0.5 Miles ®ryi,�ingsontes Damage to Vital Public Services, Systems and Facilities Communications Telephone systems will be affected by system failure, overloads, loss of electrical power and possible failure of some alternate power systems. Immediately after the event, numerous failures will occur coupled with saturation overloads. This will disable up to 80% of the telephone system for approximately one day. In light of the expected situation, emergency planners should not plan on the use of telephone systems for the first few days after the event. During a major emergency, communication from the City's Emergency Operations Center (EOC) to the outside world is a primary necessity. Twenty individual private lines are currently connected directly to the EOC from General Telephone. One line is connected through the City's telephone switch through one Police Department extension. This allows the EOC to operate independently of the City Hall network should the system be damaged or fail to operate. The obvious disadvantage of this system is the potential for damage to occur to the hard wire connections between the EOC and General Telephone. Four separate and independent radio systems are available for emergency use by EOC personnel. They are already in place and are operated by the Environmental Public Works Management (EPWM), Fire Department, the Police Department and Transportation Department. Each system has its own unique characteristics. In a disaster, it is possible that all systems could be rendered partially or completely inoperative. 62 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 Additionally, the Disaster Communication Services (DCS) provides amateur radio communication. DCS Communication equipment is located at the EOC, Fire Station One, Fire Station Five, and the Alternate EOC at the Ken Edwards Center. Public Works Department Communications Communications The backbone of the EPWM radio system is a fully repeated receiver /transmitter located on the reservoir property in the 800 -900 block of Franklin Street. There are five locations within the city that have remote control links connected to the system; City Hall; Police Headquarters; City Yards; Clover Park; and the Fire Department. The primary area of concern during a disaster would be whether or not the telephone lines would continue to function from the control points and receiver locations. If telephone lines were to fail and if the Franklin equipment were not damaged, the system would continue to operate by itself, for car to car operation, but with some range limitation. There is good possibility that the back -up system located at 2500 Michigan would enable one of these systems to work during and after a disaster. Fire Department Communications The Fire Department's radio system functions through three remote receivers which are connected via telephone lines to the main receiver site located at 2500 Michigan Avenue. The major disadvantage with this type of system lies with the telephone connections. If the main lines between the dispatcher and transmitter should fail, the dispatcher would lose the ability to hear or transmit to field units. To mitigate this problem, the fire department has installed a back -up transmitter at their dispatch center. Although providing only reduced coverage, this back -up will provide emergency communication should the main transmitter site fail. Police Department Communications The Police Department's radio system operates from their main transmitter site located on the roof of 100 Wilshire Boulevard, formally known as the GTE building. Receivers are placed in four strategic locations around the city and received signals are routed via telephone lines to Police Headquarters where the best signal is selected and routed back up to the 100 Wilshire site for transmission. As in other systems the telephone lines have been determined to be the weak link. Once this system is replaced by microwave, Police communication will be fault free as long as electrical power is not interrupted and the building structures are in place. Generator power is available at the Police Facility, 100 Wilshire and the City Yards. Some of these locations also have battery back -up as do all the sites without generator power. The City Hall telephone network, the 911 telephone network, and the Police dispatch equipment are all supported by back -up battery power which is in turn charged by the generator. Radio systems are expected to be 40 to 75% effective; microwave systems, 30% effective or less. Dam /Flood Control Channels No dam /flood control channels exist in Santa Monica. Portions of the City may be subject to flooding, due to flash flooding, urban flooding (storm drain failure /infrastructure breakdown), river channel overflow, downstream flooding, etc.) The City has not historically been vulnerable to storm surge inundation associated with hurricanes and tropical storms. Stone Canyon Reservoir The Stone Canyon Reservoir is located in the City of Los Angeles. There is a likelihood that the 10,370 acre feet capacity Stone Canyon Reservoir above the City of Brentwood would rupture in a major earthquake, inundating Brentwood and portions of West Los Angeles, and depositing no less than several inches of water on the northeast portion of Santa Monica. Riviera Reservoir The Riviera Reservoir, 1252 Capri, Los Angeles, is owned by the City of Santa Monica and located about two miles north of the City in Santa Monica Canyon. The California Department of Water Resources Bulletin No.17 lists the reservoir as having a height of 40 feet and a storage capacity of 76 acre -feet, which translates to approximately 25 million gallons. The Riviera Reservoir is an off - stream, covered storage reservoir built with vertical concrete walls. These walls are keyed top and bottom to the roof and foundations. The north and west sidewalls on the south 63 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 and east have compacted backfill in front of them. These are the sides through which water will pass should a failure occur. If the failure were to occur on the east side, the structures, located at the Riviera Golf Course, immediately below the dam will definitely be in jeopardy. If the south side of the dam were to fail, no structures would be harmed. However, the golf course would be flooded. Flood waters released during the reservoir failure would empty onto the Riviera Country Golf Course, eventually flowing into the Santa Monica Creek. The flood control channels will contain the flood waters directing them to the Pacific Ocean. Santa Monica Creek located in the City of Los Angeles, is dry the majority of the time and is not likely to be carrying flow at a time when the reservoir might fail. Damage to any homes adjacent to the golf course is considered unlikely. The travel time of the flood flows to the flood control channel would be within 15 minutes. Electrical Power Major power plants are expected to sustain some damage due to liquefaction and the intensity of the earthquake. During the Northridge earthquake power was restored within 24 hours in most areas of Santa Monica. Up to 60% of the system load may be interrupted immediately following the initial shock. According to representatives of Southern California Edison Company, the electrical power will not be rerouted and will be lost for an undefined period of time. Much of the imported power is expected to be lost. In some areas of greatest shaking it should be anticipated that some of the distribution lines, both underground and surface, will be damaged. Much of the affected area may have service restored in days; damaged areas with underground distribution may require a longer time. Loss of Southern California Edison transmission lines is possible. Fire Operations Although total collapse of fire stations is not expected, possible disruption of utilities, inoperable apparatus doors and loss of power can create major problems. Numerous fires due to disruption of power and natural gas networks can be expected. Many connections to major water sources may be out and storage facilities would have to be relied on; water supply could vary from little or none to inadequate. First response from fire personnel is expected to be assessment of the area to establish what is needed to determine response and recovery needs. Operations may take days because of the disruption of transportation routes for fire department personnel and equipment. Secondary responses by the Fire Service after assessment will be placed upon diversion of resources to accomplish search and rescue of trapped persons and extinguishment of fires with conflagration potential. Major problems the Fire Service should expect are loss of power and water, restricted mobility due to debris, and possible loss of primary dispatch capability. Highways and Bridges Damage to freeway systems is expected to be major as experienced in the partial collapse of the Santa Monica Freeway (U.S. Highway 10) during the Northridge earthquake. Any inner surface transportation routes could be subject to delays and detours. A major portion of surface streets in the vicinity of freeways could be blocked due to collapsed overpasses. Many surface streets in the older central business districts will be blocked by debris from buildings, falling electrical wires and pavement damage. Natural Gas Damage to natural gas facilities will consist primarily of (a) some isolated breaks in major transmission lines, and (b) innumerable breaks in mains and individual service connections within the distribution systems, particularly in the areas of intense ground shaking. These many leaks in the distribution system will affect a major portion of the urban areas, resulting in a loss of service for extended periods. Fires should be expected at the sites of a small percentage of ruptures both in the transmission lines and the distribution system. Transmission pipelines serving the general basin area are most vulnerable to damage. 64 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Railroads No operational railroads exist in the City of Santa Monica. However, it is expected that 21 of the 59 route segments serving the Southern California region could be unavailable for post - earthquake service; the 21 segments include all major connections with the north. The post earthquake capacity to serve both the Los Angeles and Orange County areas would be very small - probably no more than 5 trains a day. This is a dramatic loss from the 120 to 140 trains per day that can currently enter the area. Many railroad bridges are susceptible to damage because of age, design and construction. Some lines could be blocked because of damage to freeway overpass structures. Sanitation Systems The Sewer System is operated and maintained by the City of Santa Monica. Santa Monica sewage is treated by the City of Los Angeles at the Hyperion Treatment Plant in Playa Del Rey. Many waste water treatment facilities could be out of service from 4 to 6 months depending on the damage caused by the severity of intensity and liquefaction. There is a limited volume of storage available in the waste water treatment plants; if the treatment infrastructure cannot be restored before storage is exceeded, the waste water will require discharge with emergency chlorination to reduce health hazards. Overflow of sewage through manholes and from ponds can be expected due to breakage in mains and loss of power. As a result, there will be a danger of excessive collection of explosive gas in sewer mains, and flow of untreated sewage in some street gutters. Many residential sewer connections will break and plug. Water Supply Most of the City's water is provided by the Metropolitan Water District. In a major earthquake, two of the three major aqueducts serving Southern California are expected to be out of service from 3 to 6 months following the event; only the Colorado River Aqueduct is expected to remain in service. This indicates the imported water supply to Los Angeles County may be only partial for a 3 to 6 months period. Several ruptures are anticipated along the water pipelines in the County. Anticipated damage to reservoir outlet works could take weeks to repair. The majority of water wells are expected to be disabled by loss of electricity and the lack of backup power sources. In addition, shear forces could render about a third of the wells inoperative for an indefinite period. Water availability and distribution for needed life support, to treat the sick and injured and for fire suppression activities is of MAJOR concern to each community. EXISTING MITIGATION ACTIVITIES Existing mitigation activities include current mitigation programs and activities that are being implemented by county, regional, state, or federal agencies or organizations. City of Santa Monica Codes Implementation of earthquake mitigation policy most often takes place at the local government level. The City of Santa Monica Department of Building and Safety enforces building codes pertaining to earthquake hazards. The following sections of the City's Building Code address the earthquake hazard: 8.56 Northridge Earthquake Provisions 8.56.010 Repair, Reconstruction and Reinforcement of Unreinforced Masonry Buildings Requirements 8.56.020 Standards for Repair, Reconstruction and Reinforcement of Unreinforced Masonry Buildings Requirements 8.56.030 Repair, Reconstruction and Reinforcement of Soft Story Buildings 8.60 Seismic Strengthening Provisions for Unreinforced Masonry Bearing Wall Buildings 8.64 Seismic Strengthening Provisions for Existing Concrete and Reinforced Masonry Wall Buildings with Flexible Diaphrams 8.68 Voluntary Seismic Strengthening Provisions for Cripple Walls and Sill Plate Anchorage in Single - Family Dwellings 65 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 519/2014 8.72 Seismic Strengthening Provisions for Soft, Weak or Open Front Walls in Light, Wood - Framed Buildings 8.76 Seismic Strengthening Provisions for Existing Welded Steel Moment Frame Structures 8.80 Seismic Strengthening Provisions for Existing Non - Ductile Concrete Buildings The City of Santa Monica Planning Department enforces the zoning and land use regulations relating to earthquake hazards. Generally, these codes seek to discourage development in areas that could be prone to flooding, landslide, wildfire and / or seismic hazards; and where development is permitted, that the applicable construction standards are met. Developers in hazard -prone areas may be required to retain a qualified professional engineer to evaluate level of risk on the site and recommend appropriate mitigation measures. Coordination Among Building Officials The City of Santa Monica Building Code sets the minimum design and construction standards for new buildings. In 2014, the City of Santa Monica adopted the most recent seismic standards in its building code, which requires that new buildings be built at a higher seismic standard. In addition, the City has implemented a Seismic Retrofit Program, inspecting all concrete, steel and wood -frame buildings, requiring seismic retrofitting for those deemed vulnerable during a major earthquake. Businesses /Private Sector Natural hazards have a devastating impact on businesses. In fact, of all businesses which close following a disaster, more than forty -three percent never reopen, and an additional twenty -nine percent close for good within the next two years.10 The Institute of Business and Home Safety has developed "Open for Business", which is a disaster planning toolkit to help guide businesses in preparing for and dealing with the adverse effects natural hazards. The kit integrates protection from natural disasters into the company's risk reduction measures to safeguard employees, customers, and the investment itself. The guide helps businesses secure human and physical resources during disasters, and helps to develop strategies to maintain business continuity before, during, and after a disaster occurs. Hospitals The Alfred E. Alquist Hospital Seismic Safety Act ( "Hospital Act ") was enacted in 1973 in response to the moderate Magnitude 6.6 Sylmar Earthquake in 1971 when four major hospital campuses were severely damaged and evacuated. Two hospital buildings collapsed killing forty seven people. Three others were killed in another hospital that nearly collapsed. In approving the Act, the Legislature noted that: Hospitals, that house patients who have less than the capacity of normally healthy persons to protect themselves, and that must be reasonably capable of providing services to the public after a disaster, shall be designed and constructed to resist, insofar as practical, the forces generated by earthquakes, gravity and winds. (Health and Safety Code Section 129680) When the Hospital Act was passed in 1973, the State anticipated that, based on the regular and timely replacement of aging hospital facilities, the majority of hospital buildings would be in compliance with the Act's standards within 25 years. However, hospital buildings were not, and are not, being replaced at that anticipated rate. In fact, the great majority of the State's urgent care facilities are now more than 40 years old. The moderate Magnitude 6.7 Northridge Earthquake in 1994 caused $3 billion in hospital - related damage and evacuations. Twelve hospital buildings constructed before the Act were cited (red tagged) as unsafe for occupancy after the earthquake. Those hospitals that had been built in accordance with the 1973 Institute for Business and Home Safely Resources (April 2001), 66 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Hospital Act were very successful in resisting structural damage. However, nonstructural damage (for example, plumbing and ceiling systems) was still extensive in those post -1973 buildings Senate Bill 1953 ( "SB 1953 "), enacted in 1994 after the Northridge Earthquake, expanded the scope of the 1973 Hospital Act. Under SB 1953, all hospitals are required, as of January 1, 2008, to survive earthquakes without collapsing or posing the threat of significant loss of life. The 1994 Act further mandates that all existing hospitals be seismically evaluated, and retrofitted, if needed, by 2030, so that they are in substantial compliance with the Act (which requires that the hospital buildings be reasonably capable of providing services to the public after disasters). SB 1953 applies to all urgent care facilities (including those built prior to the 1973 Hospital Act) and affects approximately 2,500 buildings on 475 campuses. SB 1953 directed the Office of Statewide Health Planning and Development ( "OSHPD "), in consultation with the Hospital Building Safety Board, to develop emergency regulations including "... earthquake performance categories with subgradations for risk to life, structural soundness, building contents, and nonstructural systems that are critical to providing basic services to hospital inpatients and the public after a disaster." (Health and Safety Code Section 130005) The Seismic Safety Commission Evaluation of the State's Hospital Seismic Safety Policies In 2001, recognizing the continuing need to assess the adequacy of policies, and the application of advances in technical knowledge and understanding, the California Seismic Safety Commission created an Ad Hoc Committee to re- examine the compliance with the Alquist Hospital Seismic Safety Act. The formation of the Committee was also prompted by the recent evaluations of hospital buildings reported to OSHPD that revealed that a large percentage (40 %) of California's operating hospitals are in the highest category of collapse risk. "" California Earthquake Mitigation Legislation California is painfully aware of the threats it faces from earthquakes. Dating back to the 19th century, Californians have been killed, injured, and lost property as a result of earthquakes. As the State's population continues to grow, and urban areas become even more densely built up, the risk will continue to increase. For decades the Legislature has passed laws to strengthen the built environment and protect the citizens. Table 2.1.2 provides a sampling of some of the 200 plus laws in the State's codes. Table 2.1.2: Partial List of the Over 200 California Laws on Earthquake Safety Government Code Section Creates Seismic Safety Commission. 8870- 8870.95 Government Code Section Established the California Center for Earthquake Engineering 8876.1- 8876.10 Research. Public Resources Code Section Authorized a prototype earthquake prediction system along the 2800 - 2804.6 cental San Andreas fault near the City of Parkfield. Public Resources Code Section Continued the Southern California Earthquake Preparedness Project 2810 -2815 and the Bay Area Regional Earthquake Preparedness Project. Health and Safety Code Section The Seismic Safety Commission and State Architect, will develop a 16100 -16110 state policy on acceptable levels of earthquake risk for new and existing state -owned buildings. Government Code Section Established the California Earthquake Hazards Reduction Act of 8871 - 8871.5 1986. Health and Safety Code Section Defined earthquake performance standards for hospitals. 130000 - 130025 littp: //Ni v"v. seismic. ca. gov /pubiCSSC_2001- 04_t]ospital.pdf 67 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 51912014 i i Public Resources Code Section Established the California Earthquake Education Project. 2805 -2808 Government Code Section Established the Earthquake Research Evaluation Conference. 8899.10- 8899.16 Public Resources Code Section Established the Alquist - Priolo Earthquake Fault Zoning Act. 2621 -2630 2621. Government Code Section Created the Earthquake Safety and Public Buildings Rehabilitation 8878.50- 8878.52 8878.50. Bond Act of 1990. Education Code Section 35295- Established emergency procedure systems in kindergarten through 35297 35295. grade 12 in all the public or private schools. Health and Safety Code Section Established standards for seismic retrofitting of unreinforced 19160 -19169 masonry buildings. Health and Safety Code Section Required all child day care facilities to include an Earthquake 1596.80- 1596.879 Preparedness Checklist as an attachment to their disaster plan. Source: http: / /www.leginfo.ca.gov /calaw.htmi Earthquake Education Earthquake research and education activities are conducted at several major universities in the Southern California region, including Cal Tech, USC, UCLA, UCSB, UCI, and UCSB. The local clearinghouse for earthquake information is the Southern California Earthquake Center located at the University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA 90089, Telephone: (213) 740 -5843, Fax: (213) 740 -0011, Email: SCEinfo @usc.edu, Website: http: / /www.scec.org. The Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) is a community of scientists and specialists who actively coordinate research on earthquake hazards at nine core institutions, and communicate earthquake information to the public. SCEC is a National Science Foundation (NSF) Science and Technology Center and is co- funded by the United States Geological Survey (USGS). In addition, Los Angeles County along with other Southern California counties, sponsors the Emergency Survival Program (ESP), an educational program for learning how to prepare for earthquakes and other disasters. Many school districts have very active emergency preparedness programs that include earthquake drills and periodic disaster response team exercises. EARTHQUAKE RESOURCE DIRECTORY Local and Regional Resources Level: County Hazard: Multi http: / /Iadpw.org 900 S. Fremont Ave. Alhambra, CA 91803 Ph: 626 - 458 -5100 Notes: The Los Angeles County Department of Public Works protects property and promotes public safety through Flood Control, Water Conservation, Road Maintenance, Bridges, Buses and Bicycle Trails, Building and Safety, Land Development, Waterworks, Sewers, Engineering, Capital Projects and Level: Regional Hazard: Earthquake 3651 Trousdale Parkway Los Angeles, CA 90089 -0742 www.scec.org Suite 169 Ph: 213-740-5843 Fx:213/740 -0011 68 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 Notes: The Southern California Earthquake Center (SCEC) gathers new information about earthquakes in Southern California, integrates this information into a comprehensive and predictive understanding of earthquake phenomena, and communicates this understanding to end -users and the general public in order to increase earthquake awareness, reduce economic losses, and save lives. State Resources California Department of Transportation (CalTrans) Level: State Hazard: Multi http: / /www.dot.ca.gov/ 120 S. Spring Street Los Angeles, CA 90012 Ph: 213 - 897 -3656 Fx: Notes: CalTrans is responsible for the design, construction, maintenance, and operation of the California State Highway System, as well as that portion of the Interstate Highway System within the state's boundaries. Alone and in partnership with Amtrak, CalTrans is also involved in the support of intercity passenger rail service in California. California Resources Agency Level: State Hazard: Multi http: / /resources.ca.gov/ 1416 Ninth Street Suite 1311 Sacramento, CA 95814 Ph: 916- 653 -5656 Fx: 916- 653 -8102 Notes: The California Resources Agency restores, protects and manages the state's natural, historical and cultural resources for current and future generations using solutions based on science, collaboration and respect for all the communities and interests involved. California Division of Mines and Geology (DMG) Level: State Hazard: Multi www.consrv.ca.gov /cgs /index.htm 801 K Street MS 12 -30 Sacramento, CA 95814 Ph: 916- 445 -1923 Fx: 916- 445 -5718 Notes: The California Geological Survey develops and disseminates technical information and advice on California's geology, geologic hazards, and mineral resources. California Department of Conservation: Southern California Regional Office Level: State Hazard: Multi www.conservation.ca.gov 888 South Figueroa Street Suite 475 Los Angeles, CA 90017 -2321 Ph: 213 - 239 -0878 Fx: 213- 239 -0984 Notes: The Department of Conservation provides services and information that promote environmental health, economic vitality, informed land -use decisions and sound management of our state's natural resources. California Planning Information Network Level: State Hazard: Multi www.calpin.ca.gov Notes: The Governor's Office of Planning and Research (OPR) publishes basic information on local planning agencies, known as the California Planners' Book of Lists. This local planning information is available on -line with new search capabilities and up-to-the- minute updates. 69 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 Governor's Office of Emergency Services (OES) Level: State Hazard: Multi www.calema.ca.gov 3650 Schriever Ave Mather, CA 95655 Ph: 916 845- 8510 Fx: 916 845- 8511 Notes: The Governor's Office of Emergency Services coordinates overall state agency response to major disasters in support of local government. The office is responsible for assuring the state's readiness to respond to and recover from natural, manmade, and war - caused emergencies, and for assisting local governments in their emergency re aredness, response and recovery efforts. Federal and National Resources Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC) Level: National Hazard: Earthquake www.nibs.org 1090 Vermont Ave., NW Suite 700 Washington, DC 20005 Ph: 202- 289 -7800 Fx: 202- 289 -1092 Notes: The Building Seismic Safety Council (BSSC) develops and promotes building earthquake risk mitigation regulatory provisions for the nation. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Region IX Level: Federal Hazard: Multi www.fema.gov 1111 Broadway Suite 1200 Oakland; CA 94607 Ph: 510- 627 -7100 Fx: 510- 627 -7112 Notes: The Federal Emergency Management Agency is tasked with responding to, planning for, recovering from and mitigating against disasters. Federal Emergency Management Agency, Mitigation Division Level: Federal Hazard: Multi http: / /www.fema.gov /what- mitigation /federal- i n s u ra n c e -m i t ig at i o n -ad m i n i st ratio n 500 C Street, S.W. Washington, D.C. 20472 Ph: 202 - 566 -1600 Notes: FIMA manages the National Flood Insurance Program (NFIP) and a range of programs designed to reduce future losses to homes, businesses, schools, public buildings, and critical facilities from floods, earthquakes, tornadoes, and other natural disasters. United States Geological Survey Level: Federal Hazard: Multi http: / /www.usgs.gov/ 345 Middlefield Road Menlo Park, CA 94025 Ph: 650 - 853 -8300 Fx: Notes: The USGS provides reliable scientific information to describe and understand the Earth; minimize loss of life and property from natural disasters; manage water, biological, energy, and mineral resources; and enhance and protect our quality of life. 70 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 Western States Seismic Policy Council (WSSPC) Level: Regional Hazard: Earthquake www.wsspe.org /home.html 801 K Street, Suite 1236 Sacramento, CA 95814 Ph: 916- 444 -6816 Fx: 916- 444 -8077 Notes: WSSPC is a regional earthquake consortium funded mainly by FEMA. Its website is a great resource, with information clearly cateqorized -from i)olicv to engineering to education. Level: National Hazard: Multi 4775 E. Fowler Avenue Tampa, FL 33617 http://www.disastersafety.org/ Ph: 813-286-3400 Fx:813- 286 -9960 The Institute for Business & Home Safety (IBHS) is a nonprofit association that engages in communication, education, engineering and research. The Institute works to reduce deaths, injuries, property damage, economic losses and human suffering caused by natural disasters. Publications "Land Use Planning for Earthquake Hazard Mitigation: Handbook for Planners" Wolfe, Myer R. et. al., (1986) University of Colorado, Institute of Behavioral Science, National Science Foundation. This handbook provides techniques that planners and others can utilize to help mitigate for seismic hazards. It provides information on the effects of earthquakes, sources on risk assessment, and effects of earthquakes on the built environment. The handbook also gives examples on application and implementation of planning techniques to be used by local communities. Contact: Natural Hazards Research and Applications Information Center Address: University of Colorado, 482 UCB, Boulder, CO 80309 -0482 Phone: (303) 492 -6818 Fax: (303) 492 -2151 Website: http: / /www.colorado.edu /UCB /Research /IBS /hazards "Public Assistance Debris Management Guide", FEMA (July 2000). The Debris Management Guide was developed to assist local officials in planning, mobilizing, organizing, and controlling large -scale debris clearance, removal, and disposal operations, Debris management is generally associated with post- disaster recovery. While it should be compliant with local and county emergency operations plans, developing strategies to ensure strong debris management is a way to integrate debris management within mitigation activities. The "Public Assistance Debris Management Guide" is available in hard copy or on the FEMA website. Website: http: / /www.fema.gov End Notes I. http: / /pubs.usgs,gov /gip /earthg3 /when.html II. http: / /www.gps.caltech.edu / —sieh /home.html III. Planning for Natural Hazards: The California Technical Resource Guide, Department of Land Conservation and Development (July 2000) 71 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 IV. Dolan et. al., "Active Faults in the Los Angeles Metropolitan Region', Southern California Earthquake Center Group C V. http: / /www. data. scec.org /fault_index/monica.html VI. http: / /www.consrv.ca.gov /CGS /rghm /ap/ VII. Ibid VIII. Burby, R. (Ed.) Cooperating with Nature: Confronting Natural Hazards with Land Use Planning for Sustainable Communities (1998), Washington D.C., Joseph Henry Press. IX. FEMA HAZUS http: / /www.fema.gov /hazus /hazus2.htm (May 2001) X. Institute for Business and Home Safety Resources (April 2001) XI. http: / /www. seismic. ca. gov /pub /CSSC_2001- 04_Hospital.pdf 72 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 51912014 Why Are Landslides a Threat to City of Santa Monica History of Landslide Events and Impacts - Landslide Characteristics ..................... -------------- - - Hazard Identification Vulnerability and Risk Community Landslide Issues Landslide Resource Directory -- ---------------- ------ --------------------- Table of Contents ° -74 74 76 -79 --- ---- ---- -- -... 81 73 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 WHY ARE LANDSLIDES A THREAT TO CITY OF SANTA MONICA Landslides are a serious geologic hazard in almost every state in America. Nationally, landslides cause 25 to 50 deaths each year. 12 The best estimate of direct and indirect costs of landslide damage in the United States range between $1 and $2 billion annually.13 As a seismically active region, California has had significant number of locations impacted by landslides. Some landslides result in private property damage, other landslides impact transportation corridors, fuel and energy conduits, and communication facilities. They can also pose a serious threat to human life. Landslides can be broken down into two categories: (1) rapidly moving (generally known as debris flows), and (2) slow moving. Rapidly moving landslides or debris flows present the greatest risk to human life, and people living in or traveling through areas prone to rapidly moving landslides are at increased risk of serious injury. Slow moving landslides can cause significant property damage, but are less likely to result in serious human injuries. The topography of the City of Santa Monica is essentially flat and there is little (or no) danger of landslide activity. However, the Palisades, located in the northwest portion of the City, is a sheer cliff of fragile sandstone that rises about 100 feet above the coast that separates the northern part of the City from the beach below. As this area is susceptible to landslides, mitigation projects have been enacted. The City of Santa Monica does have liquefaction zones as indicated on Map 2.1.3 in the Earthquake section. Since the settlement of the city in the 1800's, there have not (or have) been any instances of liquefaction associated with seismic activity. HISTORIC SOUTHERN CALIFORNIA LANDSLIDES 1928 St. Francis Dam failure Los Angeles County, California. The dam gave way on March 12, and its waters swept through the Santa Clara Valley toward the Pacific Ocean, about 54 miles away. Sixty five miles of valley was devastated, and over 500 people were killed. Damages were estimated at $672.1 million (year 2000 dollars)." 1956 Portuguese Bend, California Cost, $14.6 million (2000 dollars) California Highway 14, Palos Verdes Hills. Land use on the Palos Verdes Peninsula consists mostly of single - family homes built on large lots, many of which have panoramic ocean views. All of the houses were constructed with individual septic systems, generally consisting of septic tanks and seepage pits. Landslides have been active here for thousands of years, but recent landslide activity has been attributed in part to human activity. The Portuguese Bend landslide began its modern movement in August 1956, when displacement was noticed at its northeast margin. Movement gradually extended downslope so that the entire eastern edge of the slide mass was moving within 6 weeks. By the summer of 1957, the entire slide mass was sliding towards the sea. 15 1958 -1971 Pacific Palisades, California Cost, $291 million (2000 dollars) California Highway 1 and house damaged.16 12. Mileti, Dennis, Disasters by Design: A Reassessment of Natural Hazards in the United States (1999) Joseph Henry Press, Washington D.C. 13. Brabb, E.E., and B.L Harrod. (Eds) Landslides: Extent and Economic Significance. Proceedings of the 28th International Geological Congress Symposium on Landslides. (1989) Washington D.C., Rotterdam: Balkema. 14. Highland, L.M., and Schuster, R.L., Significant Landslide Events in the United States. (No Date) USGS, Washington D.C., http : / /Iandslides.usgs.gov.html_ files / pubs / report/ /Landslides_pass_508.pdf 15. Ibid. 16. Ibid. 74 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014 17. Ibid. 18. Ibid. 19. Ibid. 20. Ibid. 21. Ibid. 22. Ibid. 23. Ibid. 24. Ibid. 25. Ibid. 75 1961 Mulholland Cut, California Cost, $41.5 million (2000 dollars) On Interstate 405, 11 miles north of Santa Monica, Los Angeles County." 1963 Baldwin Hills Dam Failure. On December 14, the 650 foot long by 155 foot high earth fill dam gave way and sent 360 million gallons of water in a fifty foot high wall cascading onto the community below, killing five persons, and damaging $50 million (2000 dollars) of dollars in property. 1969 Glendora, California Cost, $26.9 million (2000 dollars) Los Angeles County, 175 houses damaged, mainly by debris flows. 18 1969 Seventh Ave., Los Angeles County, California Cost, $14.6 million (2000 dollars) California Highway 60.79 1970 Princess Park, California Cost, $29.1 million (2000 dollars) California Highway 14, 10 miles north of Newhall, near Saugus, northern Los Angeles County.20 1971 Upper and Lower Van Norman Dams, San Fernando, California Earthquake- induced landslides Cost, $302.4 million (2000 dollars). Damage due to the February 9, 1971, magnitude 7.5 San Fernando, California, earthquake. The earthquake of February 9 severely damaged the Upper and Lower Van Norman Dams.21 1971 Juvenile Hall, San Fernando, California Landslides caused by the February 9, 1971, San Fernando, California, earthquake Cost, $266.6 million (2000 dollars). In addition to damaging the San Fernando Juvenile Hall, this 1.2 km -long slide damaged trunk lines of the Southern Pacific Railroad, San Fernando Boulevard, Interstate Highway 5, the Sylmar, California, electrical converter station, and several pipelines and canals. 12 1977 -1980 Monterey Park, Repetto Hills, Los Angeles County, California Cost, $14.6 million (2000 dollars) 100 houses damaged in 1980 due to debris flows 23 1978 Bluebird Canyon Orange County California October 2, cost, $52.7 million (2000 dollars) 60 houses destroyed or damaged. Unusually heavy rains in March of 1978 may have contributed to initiation of the landslide. Although the 1978 slide area was approximately 3.5 acres, it is suspected to be a portion of a larger, ancient landslide. 14 1979 Big Rock, California, Los Angeles County Cost, approximately $1.08 billion (2000 dollars) California Highway 1 rockslide." 1980 Southern California slides $1.1 billion in damage (2000 dollars) Heavy winter rainfall in 1979 -90 caused damage in six Southern California counties. In 1980, the rainstorm started on February 8. A sequence of 5 days of continuous rain and 7 inches of precipitation had occurred by February 14. Slope failures were Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5!9!2014 beginning to develop by February 15 and then very high- intensity rainfall occurred on February 16. As much as 8 inches of rain fell in a 6 hour period in many locations. Records and personal observations in the field on February 16 and 17 showed that the mountains and slopes literally fell apart on those 2 days .21 1983 San Clemente, California, Orange County Cost, $65 million (2000 dollars), California Highway 1. Litigation at that time involved approximately $43.7 million (2000 dollars) .27 1983 Big Rock Mesa, California Cost, $706 million (2000 dollars) in legal claims condemnation of 13 houses, and 300 more threatened rockslide caused by rainfall 28 1978 -1979, 1980 San Diego County, California Experienced major damage from storms in 1978, 1979, and 1979 -80, as did neighboring areas of Los Angeles and Orange County, California. One hundred and twenty landslides were reported to have occurred in San Diego County during these 2 years. Rainfall for the rainy seasons of 78 -79 and 79 -80 was 14.82 and 15.61 inches (37.6 and 39.6 cm) respectively, compared to a 125 -year average (1850 -1975) of 9.71 inches (24.7 cm). Significant landslides occurred in the Friars Formation, a unit that was noted as slide -prone in the Seismic Safety Study for the City of San Diego. Of the nine landslides that caused damage in excess of $1 million, seven occurred in the Friars Formation, and two in the Santiago Formation in the northern part of San Diego County. 29 1994 Northridge, California earthquake landslides As a result of the magnitude 6.7 Northridge, California, earthquake, more than 11,000 landslides occurred over an area of 10,000 km2. Most were in the Santa Susana Mountains and in mountains north of the Santa Clara River Valley. Destroyed dozens of homes, blocked roads, and damaged oil -field infrastructure. Caused deaths from Coccidioidomycosis (valley fever) the spore of which was released from the soil and blown toward the coastal populated areas. The spore was released from the soil by the landslide activity.30 March 1995 Los Angeles and Ventura Counties, Southern California Above normal rainfall triggered damaging debris flows, deep - seated landslides, and flooding. Several deep- seated landslides were triggered by the storms, the most notable was the La Conchita landslide, which in combination with a local debris flow, destroyed or badly damaged 11 to 12 homes in the small town of La Conchita, about 20 km west of Ventura. There also was widespread debris -flow and flood damage to homes, commercial buildings, and roads and highways in areas along the Malibu coast that had been devastated by wildfire 2 years before .31 LANDSLIDE CHARACTERISTICS What is a landslide? "A landslide is defined as, the movement of a mass of rock, debris, or earth down a slope. Landslides are a type of "mass wasting" which denotes any down slope movement of soil and rock under the direct influence of gravity. The term 'landslide' encompasses events such as rock falls, topples, slides, spreads, and flows. Landslides can be initiated by rainfall, earthquakes, volcanic activity, changes in groundwater, disturbance and change of a slope by man -made construction activities, or any combination of these factors. Landslides can also occur underwater, causing tidal waves and damage to coastal areas. These landslides are called submarine landslides." 32 26. Ibid. 27. Ibid. 28. Ibid. 29. Ibid 30. Ibid. 31. Ibid. 32. Landslide Hazards, U.S. Geological Survey Fact Sheet 0071 -00, Version 1.0, U.S. Department of the Interior 76 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/912014 its concerns, opinions, or ideas about the Plan. The City Public Information Officer will be responsible for using city resources to publicize the annual public meetings and maintain public involvement through City TV, the City's web page, and local newspapers. 46 Santa Monica All Hazard Mitigation Plan 5/9/2014