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SEP 2 3 1980
Santa Monica, California September 10 1980
To: Mayor and City Council
From: City Staff OCT 1 ? 1980
Subject: Effects of Asbestos-Cement Pipe in Santa Monica
Introduction
This report presents a further study of the possible effects of the use of
asbestos-cement (AC) pipe in the Santa Monica water system.
Background
On June 10, 1980, staff presented an information report on asbestos-cement
pipe to the City Council. On June 25, 1980, the Council directed staff to
review materialsl provided by the Environmental Defense Fund (EDF) to
Councilmember Rhoden and to further study the question of AC pipe (Item 5-C).
The parameters of the AC pipe issue are set by two major questions: Is
there a relationship between the use of asbestos-cement pipe and the presence
of asbestos fibers in the water; and is there an association between ingested
asbestos and incidences of cancer?
The testimony prepared by the Environmental Defense Fund shows a deep concern
for the issues at hand. The report raises thoughtful questions regarding the
issues and serves as a challenge to water suppliers to constantly educate
themselves and to maintain the highest quality of water for their consumers.
T The materia s are:
a. Cover letter to Ms. Rhoden from Barry Castleman, 6/19/80.
b. Testimony of Dr. Robert H. Harris and Barry I. Castleman,
Environmental Defense Fund, before the Senate Subcommittee OOj i 4 1480
Studying Asbestos Pipes, Arlington, VA, 9/18/80. See
Exhibit A.
'~
SEP 2 3 190
To: Mayor and City Council -2- September 10, 1980
However, staff believes the challanges raised in the EDF testimony have been
met in Santa Monica. Below is a discussion of the various issues raised in
the EDF report and how Santa Monica has or is responding to them.
With regard to the question of whether the presence of asbestos in drinking
water increases incidences of cancer, one of the foremost problems encountered
was the EDF testimony did not differentiate for the reader
between air-borne (inhaled) and water-borne (ingested) asbestos. The
inhalation of asbestos is well recognized by all as a serious occupational
and envorinmental health problem. However, the specific health problems which
may be caused by inhaled asbestos are unrelated to the possible effects of
ingested asbestos. The knowledge we have concerning the two means of internal
exposure to asbestos is quite distinct and separate. No relationship between
ingested asbestos and health hazards has been established.2 To mix discussion
of the two means of entry causes confusion and a distortion of the analysis
surrounding the issue.
Staff's second point in the analysis of the EDF testimony is that it
presents no significant statistical facts, but only provides the reader
with information which leads to personal assumptions of the effects of
asbestos ingested from drinking water. In the complete report3 by Leland
J. McCabe and James R. Millette of the Field Studies Division, Health
Effects Research Laboratory, EPA, (which was quoted in the EDF testimony),
the statement is made: "There is also evidence that the ingestion of
2 Levy, B.S., et al. Investigating possible effects of asbestos in city.
water; Surveillance of gastrointestinal cancer incidence in Duluth, MN,
American Journal of Spidemiology 103:362-368 (1976)
3 McCabe, Leland J. et al. Health Effects and Prevalence of Asbestos Fibers
in Drinking Water, June, 1979. See Exhibit B.
To: Mayor and City Council
-3- September 10, 1980
asbestos is a health hazard." However, in McCabe and Millette's research,
only anon-conclusive relationship between asbestos and cancer was found.
List of Cities and Areas in which Relationship between Asbestos
and Increased Cancer Incidence was Studied 4
Probable Relationshi
San Francisco Bay Cities5
No Relationship
Connecticut
Duluth
Minneapolis
St. Paul
Puget Sound Region
Quebec
(In the listing above, no distinction is made between asbestos
in source water and asbestos leached from AC pipe.}
There is no evidence ingested asbestos is harmful, just as there is no
evidence to the contrary. The EDF testimony includes no conclusive test
results nor statistical analyses of the studies they cite. For instance,
test results are cited which indicate when large amounts of chrysotile
asbestos and talc were fed to 32 rats, one rat developed a gastric tumor.
However, the report provides the reader with no scientific conclusions of the
test results. The reader then must make assumptions about the test based on his
or her own fear of cancer.
The above two points deal with the question of a relationship between the
oresence of asbestos in drinking water (both frpm natural sources and from
the water system) and the fear of increased incidences of cancer. Staff
4 Information drawn from report of McCabe & Millette report, Exhibit B.
5 In a report requested by Councilmember Goldway entitled "Asbestos in
Drinking Glater and Cancer Incidence in the San Francisco Bay Area,"
the discussion concerns naturally occurring asbestos fibers in source
water and its effect on incidences of cancer. The report states
"Samples were taken before and after passage through lengths of
asbestos-cement pipe. In most of the districts sampled, there was
not a substantial increase in fiber counts after passage through asbestos-
.cement pipe." See Exhibit C.
To: Mayor and City Council
=4- September 10, 148D
believes this question will be answered by the EPA, the Food and Drug
Administration and other research institutions. In accordance with this
belief, staff follows all EPA requirements and recommended practices for
water quality control as well as those established by the American Water
Works Association. Below is a commentary by staff on the issue of asbestos
cement pipe and its relationship to the presence of asbestos fibers in the
water as discussed in the EDF report.
The EDF in their testimony rightly raises the issue of asbestos contamination
due to the aggressiveness of water. However, staff believes the EDF report
discusses the issue in terms that are too general. This leads the reader to
surmise most water systems suffer from aggressive water. In reality, aggressive
water is present only in a few isolated areas and not in Southern California
or in Santa Monica. Aggressive water is the key to finding fibers in drinking
water if the source water does not contain any fibers. In AC pipe, the asbestos
fibers are encapsulated by the cement to provide reinforcing in the concrete.
Highly aggressive water can attack the pipe, breaking down the concrete and
"releasing" the asbestos fibers. Non-aggressive water has never shown this
characteristic, but the EDF report does not discuss the use of AC pipe in
non-aggressive water systems, such as Santa Monica's.
Each system, then, must be discussed in terms of its own water qualities.
Santa Monica has established a definite program to control the
,'
To: Mayor and City council
agnressivity _ of the water
-5- September 10, 1980
Although Santa f4onica well water is
naturally non-aggressive, after softening it can become moderately
aggressive. To counter-balance this reaction, caustic soda (sodium
hydroxide) is added to maintain non-aggressiveness in accordance with
EPA requirements that water be non-corrosive. In the McCabe and Millette
report, the conclusion is reached that "Ct7 he release of fibers from
asbestos-cement pipe can be controlled by conditioning the water."5
Santa Monica Water Operations eliminates the possibility of AC pipe
fiber release through constant testing and control of the water chemistry.
The water in Santa Monica is maintained at approximately a 12.2 - 12.3
level on the Aggressivity Inddx:a3 derived by the American Water Works
Association. (See Exhibit D). This 12.2 - 12.3 level places the water
in the "non-aggressive" category and is safe for use with asbestos-cement
pipe. Further adjustment of the water supply in Santa Monica is made to
what is termed the "Langlier Index" so that the water in the distribution
system has a very slight tendency to "deposit out" elements as opposed
to "taking out" elements from the pipelines throuoh which it travels.
Since Santa Monica's water is non-aggressive and tends to deposit
rather than erode material from the pipe, it follows that any asbestos fibers
found in the water system if nresent_would be from the source water.
See also the letter from the Virginia State Department of Health,
Exhibit E.
To: Mayor and City Council -5- September 10, 1980
Other comments by Staff on the information in the EDF report can be
found in the right-hand margin of the copy of the testimony attached
as Exhibit A.
In addition to reviewing the information in the report, staff checked
with-the sources listed in the-cover letter accompanying the EDF testimony.
With regard to the moratorium in Connecticut, the Connecticut legislature
banned the use of AC pipe with the provision that if the State Health
Officer stated there were no adverse health effects, then AC pipe could
be used. This moratorium throughout the state was based on one test
for fibers in one city. Moreover, twenty-five to thirty percent of the
water in Connecticut is fairly aggressive.
In Chesapeake, Virginia, staff spoke to Mr. Carl Cahill, a private citizen
interested in water safety, whom Mr. Castleman refers to in his letter.
Chesapeake's Aggressivity Index is approximately 10-11 (moderately
aggressive) and they use Type II AC pipe which is designed for use with
moderately aggressive water. A water sample was taken in February, 1979,
from a fire hydrant in a subdivision where much development was occurring.
These conditions resulted in a fiber count.cf 160 million fibers per liter.
The EPA ordered the test re-made as it was performed under the worst
possible conditions. A second test in March, 1979, showed 50,000
fibers per liter and a third test in December, 1979, indicated up to
50,000 fibers per liter. Despite the results of the second and third tests
To: Mayor and City Council -7- September 10, 1980
(both of which. were very much below the EPA Suggested No Adverse Response
Level), Chesapeake banned the use of AC pipe. According to Mr. Cahill,
the Council refused to believe the results of the second and third tests.
Menlo Park is another city which banned AC pipe. According to Mr. Lorne
Mercer of the City Water Department, no asbestos fiber counts were taken,
nor did the City monitor either the corrrosiveness (Langlier Index) or
the aggressivity of the water. Menlo Park does monitor the pH of the
water which is relatively high (8.0 - 9.0). The City Council directed
that no more AC pipe be installed in the event that a problem might arise.
This is a good example of a city that staff believes should ban AC pipe.
Menlo Park is located in an area which has naturally aggressive water and
its water department-does not maintain proper inspection of the quality
of the water.
The City of Seattle, on the other hand, has never used AC pipe. Seattle
gets its water from two sources: the Tolt River which has a pH of 5.5
and an Aggressivity Index of 9 - 9.5 (highly aggressive).- Three or four
years ago, the City of Seattle tested AC pipe, but pH, calcium, alkalinity,
and asbestos fiber levels increased. The EPA did an analysis and found
the water too corrosive to use AC pipe. The Seattle Engineering and
Building Codes were then revised to delete the use of AC pipe in the
water system.
To: Mayor and City Council
-8- September lo, 1980
Finally, staff contacted James R. Millette of the Field Studies Division -
Health Effects Research Laboratory - EPA in Cincinnati. Mr. Millette
indicated that there is no conclusive evidence in research to determine
whether there is or is not a danger from AC pipe> but he stated further
the use of AC pipe does not cause problems unless the water system has
highly aggressive water.
Mr. Millette co-authored the report on which much of the information in
the the EDF report was based.3 In addition, he co-authored a paper
entitled "Asbestos Cement Pipe is No Danger in Connecticut." (See
Exhibit F.) This report was published since the ban on AC pipe in
Connecticut. The results of the study discussed in this paper, which
was sponsored by the National Cancer Institute and the EPA, are:
"There is no consistent indication that the use of A/C
pipe in Connecticut public-water supplies has been followed
by increases in incidence either of all cancers or of
individual cancer sites studied .... The lack of coherent
evidence for cancer risks from use of A/C pipe is reassuring.
...The results provide no evidence for changing current
water distribution policies for Connecticut water supplies
because of A/C pipe use."~
Meigs, J. blister, Asbestos Cement Pipe is No Danger in Connecticut.
Water & Sewage Works. June, 1980, pp. 66,68,93.
To: Mayor and City ~uncil -9-
Sep ,nber 10, 1980
On October 1,1979, the EPA published its Priority Pollutants for Water
Quality. The Suggested No Adverse Response Level (SNARL) for asbestos fibers
in the water was set at 300,000 fibers per liter (F/L) or less. At the
300,000 F/L level, it is statistically possible that the cancer rate may
increase by one person per 100,000 population if the population drank one-half
gallon water every day far 70 years.
Seven samples were taken at various sites in the Santa Monica water system for
analysis of the number of asbestos fibers contained therein. The analyses were
done according to the EPA interim method for the determination of asbestos in
water and were performed at EMS Laboratories (Hawthorne), the only laboratory
in Southern California certified by the EPA to do these analyses. The
tabulated results are:
Sample
Number
632*
633
634
635
636
637
661
Location
Salt Water at Arcadia
MWD at Arcadia
Arcadia Reservoir
0.1 or less
0.1 or less
Senior Rec. Center, Ocean Ave. 0 0.1 or less
Marine and 11th Sampler 0 0.1 or less
Stanford and Berkeley Sampler 0 0.1 or less
Salt Water Well at Beach 0 0.1 or less
Number of Asbestos
Fiber Counted
0
0
0
Statistical Probability
of Asbestos Fibers
MFL
0.1 or less
* Sample taken .after water has passed through five miles of continuous AC
Pipe. Salt water is used in the water softening plant and is the most
aggressive water in use in Santa Monica.
The results of the fiber count ihdicates the laboratory was .not able to count
any fibers in the water samples and concluded Santa Monica's water is at least
To: Mayor and City Council
-10- September 10, 19.80
three times lower in asbestos fibers than the EPA recommended level. Thus,
from a water quality standpoint, AC pipe appears to perform adequately in Santa
Monica. Staff will continue to monitor asbestos levels in the source water and
each pressure zone every six months and will continue to monitor the aggressive-
Hess index on a daily basis.
For the last thirty years, the use of AC pipe for water systems has become the
standard for the industry (except for a few areas with aggressive water). Cancer
incidences have decreased in the areas of the body believed to be most vulnerable
to attack. The chart below is taken from a phamphlet prepared by the American
Cancer Society entitled "Cancer Facts & Figures: 1980". It clearly shows that
stomach cancer has decreased more than 60% while most other types of cancer have
.remained relatively constant.
_. - -
25-Year Trends in Age-Adjusted Cancer Deatfi Rates Per 100,000 Population 1950-52 to 1975-77
'
' "" ~' ~ Percent -
'Sax Sltes.~; 7960.52 7975-77, --Changes Comments
Mala = All Sites 731.1 162.3 + 23.6 Steady increase mainly due to lung cancer.
female' All Sites 118.9 107.9 - 9.3 Slight decrease.
'-Male'-`-. Blatlder , 5.7 4.9 ' Slight fluctuations; overall no change.
- Female - Bladder 2.2 1.4 - 35.1 Same fluctuations; noticeable decrease.
Male..-'-. Breast 0.3 0.3 + Constant rate.
~: Female-. Breast 22.0 23.2 + 0.6 Slight fluctuations: overau no change.
Malo-" Colon&Rectum 19.4 19.0 - 2.1 Slight fluctua[ions; overall no change.
Female Colon & Rectum 18.9 14.9 - 79.5 Slightfluctuations; noticeable decrease.
`Male -:" Esophagus 3.6 4.3 + 19.0 Some fluctuations; slight increase
Female:
Esophagus
.9
72
• .
Slight fluctuations; overall no change in females.
-fflale"`t Kidney 2.8 3.7 + 32.7 Steady slight increase.
Female Kidney i.6 1.8 ~ Slight fluctuations; overall no change.
Male' Leukemia 6.5 6.9 + 6.2 Early increase, later leveling off.
.Female Leukemia 4.6 4.1 8.7 Slight early increase, later leveling off and decrease.
Male ' Lung 78.3 56.7 +210.6 Steady increase in both sexes due to cigarette
Female> Lung 3.9 1q.0 +263.3 smoking.
-Male. °'
'
' Oral ~ q,7 q,g + Slight tluctua[ions; overall no change in both
Female Oral 1.2 i.6 sexes. -
Female Ovary 7.0 7.3 + 4.3 Steady increase, later leveling pFt.
Mala
` Pancreas 6.5 8.4 + 29.2 Steady increase in both sexes, then leveling off.
Female. Pancreas q,2 5.2 + 23.8 Reasons unknown. -
Mala >. Prostate 13.3 13.9. + 5.3 Fluctuations all through perietl; overall no change.
Male -: Skin 2.3 2.8 Slight fluctuations; overall no change in both
Female-- Skin 1.5 7.6
• sexes.
Male '' Stomach p,6 G.8 _
61.2 Steady decrease in bath sexes; reasons unknown.
Female Stomach 9,3 3.2 _ 65.6
Female - Utarus 18.2 7.4 - 59.3 Steady decrease.
-rarcanL Wdngas n0[ IIS[atl uaceu5a [hey a/e nOt meaninglul.
To: Mayor and City Council -11- September 10, 1480
Moreover, no pipe is without its problems. Polyvinylchloride pipe is a potential
source of the carcinogenic gas, vinyl chloride. In addition, it has been found
that TCE is capable of leaching into the water supply from the vinyl pipe.
Testing has found concentrations as high as 3,500 parts per billion in some
water systems with this type of pipe. Metal pipes lined with asphalt or
coal-tar have been shown to produce polynuclear aromatic hydrocarbons which
may be carcenogenic. The most likely alternative to asbestos-cement pipe is
cement lined ductile iron. However, this type of pipe is much more expensive
to purchase and install. It differs in cost from AC pipe by 15% for the 12",
to 30% for the 6" and 8" pipe, and is not as resistant to corrosion. Aggressive
water, if it were present, could remove calcium from the cement and cause the
water to have an excessive amount, causing a health hazard of comparible
magnitude to that of asbestos.
Conclusion
To restate the main points in staff's presentation:
1. Proper use of asbestos-cement pipe has not been found to create problems
in water quality.
2. The respiratory diseases associated with inhaled asbestos are not
associated with ingested asbestos.
3. A distinction must be made between asbestos occurring in source water
and asbestos leached from AC pine.
4. No conclusive test results indicate AC pine is associated with increased
incidence of gastrointestinal cancer.
5. The levels of asbestos fibers in Santa Monica water (0.1 MFL or less) is
far below the EPA Suggested Plo Adverse Response Level of 0.3 MFL.
To: Mayor and City Council
-12- September 10, 1980
Based on .the above items, staff believes that while there is no immediate
apparent .danger, the situation is worthy of careful and continued monitoring.
Therefore, staff recommends:
1. The continued use of asbestos-cement pipe in Santa Monica; and
2. Testing for asbestos fibers every six months.
3. Continuance of the existing program of aggressivity control.
Prepared by: Stan Scholl
Marsha Hafkemeyer
Ed Lash